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Background. Overweight in adults is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. In contrast, the long-term effect of overweight in adolescence on morbidity and mortality is not known. Methods. We studied the relation between overweight and morbidity and mortality in 508 lean or overweight adolescents 13 to 18 years old who participated in the Harvard Growth Study of 1922 to 1935. Overweight adolescents were defined as those with a body-mass index that on two occasions was greater than the 75th percentile in subjects of the same age and sex in a large national survey. Lean adolescents were defined as those with a body-mass index between the 25th and 50th percentiles. Subjects who were still alive were interviewed in 1988 to obtain information about their medical history, weight, functional capacity, and other risk factors. For those who had died, information on the cause of death was obtained from death certificates. Results. Overweight in adolescent subjects was associated with an increased risk of mortality from all causes and disease-specific mortality among men, but not among women. The relative risks among men were 1.8 (95 percent confidence interval, 1.2 to 2.7; P = 0.004) for mortality from all causes and 2.3 (95 percent confidence interval, 1.4 to 4.1; P = 0.002) for mortality from coronary heart disease. The risk of morbidity from coronary heart disease and atherosclerosis was increased among men and women who had been overweight in adolescence. The risk of colorectal cancer and gout was increased among men and the risk of arthritis was increased among women who had been overweight in adolescence. Overweight in adolescence was a more powerful predictor of these risks than overweight in adulthood. Conclusions. Overweight in adolescence predicted a broad range of adverse health effects that were independent of adult weight after 55 years of follow-up.

Although Botryosphaeria species are known to cause cankers and dieback in many different woody hosts, their importance in grapevines has been largely ignored. Indeed, they are more often regarded as saprophytes or weak pathogens. In the work presented here the species of Botryosphaeria associated with wood and trunk diseases of grapevines in Portugal were determined. Three species, namely, B. obtusa, B. parva and B. lutea, were regularly associated with trunk dieback, wood necrosis, brown wood streaking, cane bleaching or incomplete grafts. Botryosphaeria parva was the most common and widely distributed species. Botryosphaeria dothidea and B. stevensii were less common; the former was found on bleached canes and on necrotic tissues at the graft union, while the latter was isolated from necrotic buds and, occasionally, from brown streaks in the wood. These data indicate that B. parva is associated with many of the symptoms normally linked with infection by other fungi in the grapevine decline syndrome. To stimulate further research on this genus, descriptions of the species associated with grapevines and an identification key are provided [Sebbene sia noto che le specie di Botryosphaeria causano cancri e degenerazione in numerosi ospiti costituiti da piante legnose, la loro importanza nella vite e' stata ampiamente ignorata. In realta', esse sono considerate spesso come saprofite o come patogeni deboli. In questo lavoro sono state determinate le specie di Botryosphaeria associate alle malattie del legno e del tronco della vite in Portogallo. Tre specie, precisamente B. obtusa, B. parva e B. lutea, sono risultate associate comunemente con deperimento del fusto, necrosi del legno, striature brune del legno, decolorazione dei tralci o innesti incompleti. Botryosphaeria parva e' risultata la specie piu' comune e largamente diffusa. Botryosphaeria dothidea e B. stevensii erano meno frequenti; la prima e' stata trovata su tralci scoloriti e su tessuti necrotici in corrispondenza del punto di innesto, mentre la seconda e' stata isolata da gemme necrotiche e, occasionalmente, da striature brune nel legno. Questi dati indicano che B. parva e' associata a molti dei sintomi collegati normalmente all'infezione da parte di altri funghi nella malattia del deperimento della vite. Per stimolare ulteriori ricerche su questo genere, vengono fornite le descrizioni delle specie associate alla vite e una chiave per la loro identificazione]

Schmallenberg virus (SBV) infection is an emerging infectious disease of ruminants first described in Germany in November, 2011. Since then it has spread very rapidly to several European countries. The disease is characterised by fever, reduced milk production and diarrhoea in cattle and abortions, stillbirths and foetal abnormalities in sheep and goats. SBV is an enveloped, negative-sense, segmented, single-stranded RNA virus, classified in the genus Orthobunyavirus of the Bunyaviridae family, and is closely related to Akabane, Ainoa and Shamonda viruses. As of now there is no vaccine available for SBV, which poses a serious threat to naive ruminant population. Owing to its recent discovery, our understanding of Schmallenberg viral disease and its pathology and pathogenesis is limited. This article reviews the data reported so far on this emerging disease with regard to aetiology, epidemiology, pathogenesis, pathology, diagnosis and control and discusses the future scenario and implications of the disease.

Background. The evidence of an association of lactation with a reduction in the risk of breast cancer among women has been limited and inconsistent. The effect of lactation appears to be confined to premenopausal women with a history of long lactation, but most studies of this relation have been limited in statistical power. We conducted a multicenter, population-based, case-control study with a sample large enough for us to describe more precisely the association between lactation and the risk of breast cancer. Methods. Patients less than 75 years old who had breast cancer were identified from statewide tumor registries in Wisconsin, Massachusetts, Maine, and New Hampshire. Controls were randomly selected from lists of licensed drivers if the case subjects were less than 65 years old, and from lists of Medicare beneficiaries if they were 65 through 74 years old. Information on lactation, reproductive history, and family and medical history was obtained by means of telephone interviews. After the exclusion of nulliparous women, 5878 case subjects and 8216 controls remained for analysis. Results. After adjustment for parity, age at first delivery, and other risk factors for breast cancer, lactation was associated with a slight reduction in the risk of breast cancer among premenopausal women, as compared with the risk among women who were parous but had never lactated (relative risk, 0.78; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.66 to 0.91); the relative risk of breast cancer among postmenopausal women who had lactated, as compared with those who had not, was 1.04 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.95 to 1.14). With an increasing cumulative duration of lactation, there was a decreasing risk of breast cancer among premenopausal women (P for trend 0.001) but not among postmenopausal, parous women (P for trend

Black dead arm was first identified in French vineyards in 1999. It produces symptoms in the vine wood, causing decline and eventually death. Previously, this disease was confused with esca because of the similarity of the foliar symptoms. Two forms of black dead arm, a mild and a severe form, were observed in French vineyards on Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon. Isolation from 23 vines collected from four vineyards located in three viticultural districts of Bordeaux showed that the main fungi associated with the brown streaks were Botryosphaeria obtusa, B. dothidea and Trichoderma spp.. Pathogenicity tests showed that B. obtusa and B. dothidea caused dark lesions on one-year-old canes. Therefore, these two fungi merit further study to determine their role in causing black dead arm [La malattia del black dead arm e' stata identificata in Francia per la prima volta nel 1999. Essa produce sintomi nel legno della vite, determinando deperimento ed, eventualmente, la morte. In precedenza, questa malattia veniva confusa con il mal dell'esca a causa della somiglianza dei sintomi a carico delle foglie. Nei vigneti francesi sono state osservate due forme di questa malattia, una leggera e una grave, su Cabernet Sauvignon e Sauvignon. L'isolamento da 23 viti derivanti da quattro vigneti localizzati in tre zone viticole di Bordeaux ha messo in evidenza che i principali funghi associati con le striature brune erano Botryosphaeria obtusa, B. dothidea e Trichoderma spp.. I test di patogenicita' hanno dimostrato che B. obtusa e B. dothidea causavano lesioni scure sui tralci di un anno. Percio', questi due funghi meritano un ulteriore approfondimento, allo scopo di determinare il loro ruolo nel provocare la malattia del black dead harm]

A double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) ca. 19 Kbp in size was obtained from tissue extracts of a fig plant (Ficus carica) with chlorotic mottling and vein clearing of the leaves. Leaf dips showed the presence of filamentous closterovirus-like particles with distinct cross banding and a length of about 1,800 nm. No virus was recovered by mechanical inoculation to herbaceous hosts. However, virus aggregates were plentiful in thin-sectioned companion cells and differentiating sieve tubes of symptomatic leaves. Using denatured dsRNA preparations as template, a 620 bp cDNA fragment was amplified by RT-PCR using degenerate primers designed on the phosphate motifs 1 and 2 of the heat shock-protein 70 homologue (HSP70h) of members of the family Closteroviridae. Computer-assisted analysis of the sequenced 620 bp fragment showed it to be part of a closteroviral HSP70h gene having identity at the amino acid level with the comparable gene of different closteroviral species ranging from 34 to 48. In a phylogenetic tree constructed with the amino acid sequences of part of the HSP70h of several members of the family Closteroviridae, the fig virus grouped with species of the genus Closterovirus. RT-PCR with specific primers designed on the HSP70h sequence detected the virus in 36 of 57 field-grown trees, most of which had mosaic symptoms. The present results show that fig hosts a putative closterovirus species for which the name of Fig leaf mottle-associated virus (FLMaV) is proposed [E' stato ottenuto un RNA (dsRNA) di ca. 19 Kbp da estratti di tessuti di una pianta di fico (Ficus carica) che presentava maculature clorotiche e ingiallimento delle nervature delle foglie. Gli estratti delle foglie evidenziavano la presenza di particelle filamentose simili ai Closterovirus con rigature incrociate distinte e lunghezza di circa 1.800 nm. Non sono stati ritrovati virus a seguito di inoculazione meccanica a ospiti erbacei. Tuttavia, si riscontrava la presenza abbondante di aggregati virali nelle cellule compagne e nei tubi cribrosi in corso di differenziazione delle foglie sintomatiche. Utilizzando preparazioni di dsRNA denaturato come modello, è stato amplificato, mediante RT-PCR, un frammento di 620 bp di cDNA utilizzando primer degenerati elaborati sui motif fosfatici 1 e 2 dell'omologo della proteina da shock termico 70 (HSP70h) dei membri della famiglia Closteroviridae. L'analisi assistita da elaboratore del frammento di 620 bp sequenziato ha evidenziato che lo stesso è parte di un gene dell'HSP70h closterovirale, con un'identità, a livello aminoacidico, con il gene confrontabile di diverse specie di Closterovirus, variabile dal 34 al 48. In un albero filogenetico costruito con le sequenze aminoacidiche di parte dell'HSP70h di numerosi membri della famiglia Closteroviridae, il virus del fico si raggruppava con le specie del genere Closterovirus. Mediante la RT-PCR con primer specifici sviluppati sulla sequenza dell'HSP70h, è stato possibile diagnosticare il virus in 36 di 57 piante in campo, la maggior parte delle quali presentava sintomi di mosaico. Questi risultati dimostrano che il ficus ospita una specie putativa di Closterovirus, per la quale viene proposto il nome di Virus associato alla maculatura delle foglie di fico (FLMaV).]

Parasites can have a profound effect on biology and evolution of the hosts, which are expected to have evolved physiological and developmental mechanisms that allow them to minimise the costs imposed by parasites. In this study we analyse the effects of a dipteran ectoparasite on barn swallow (Hirundo rustica) nestling biology including rate of somatic growth, plasma protein concentration, blood cell sedimentation rate, hematocrit, concentration of leukocytes in peripheral blood, and T-lymphocyte cell-mediated immunocompetence. In a natural population, intensity of parasite infestation was positively correlated with growth of feathers. Nestlings in heavily infested nests may decide to allocate more resources to feather growth thus fledging early. To test this hypothesis, the detrimental effects of parasites on nestlings, and the existence of trade-offs between competing growth processes, we inoculated some nests with additional flies. Nestlings exposed to increased infestation had larger rate of feather growth but were in poorer condition than unmanipulated controls. Parasite inoculation resulted in larger concentrations of eosinophils and lymphocytes. Among siblings of broods inoculated with parasites, those that had the largest rate of feather growth had the lowest rate of increase in tarsus length and body mass. We conclude that louse flies depress barn swallow nestling condition and influence their immune profile. However, they also enhance growth of a morphological character that may allow nestlings to reduce the impact of parasites. Nestlings apparently experience a trade-off between the competing demands for growing feathers and other somatic characters.

Background. Fluctuation in body weight is a common phenomenon, due in part to the high prevalence of dieting. In this study we examined the associations between variability in body weight and health end points in subjects participating in the Framingham Heart Study, which involves follow-up examinations every two years after entry. Methods. The degree of variability of body weight was expressed as the coefficient of variation of each subject's measured body-mass-index values at the first eight biennial examinations during the study and on their recalled weight at 25 years of age. Using the 32-year follow-up data, we analyzed total mortality, mortality from coronary heart disease, and morbidity due to coronary heart disease and cancer in relation to intraindividual variation in body weight, including only end points that occurred after the 10th biennial examination. We used age-adjusted proportional-hazards regression for the data analysis. Results. Subjects with highly variable body weights had increased total mortality (P = 0.005 for men, P = 0.01 for women), mortality from coronary heart disease (P = 0.009 for men, P = 0.009 for women), and morbidity due to coronary heart disease (P = 0.0009 for men, P = 0.006 for women). Using a multivariate analysis that also controlled for obesity, trends in weight over time, and five indicators of cardiovascular risk, we found that the positive associations between fluctuations in body weight and end points related to mortality and coronary heart disease could not be attributed to these potential confounding factors. The relative risks of these end points in subjects whose weight varied substantially, as compared with those whose weight was relatively stable, ranged from 1.27 to 1.93. Conclusions. Fluctuations in body weight may have negative health consequences, independent of obesity and the trend of body weight over time

The role that pathogens play in structuring ecological communities needs to be examined from both a theoretical and empirical perspective. This paper provides a brief introduction to the ecology and epidemiology of brucellosis in Yellowstone National Park. Observed patterns of infection for brucellosis in bison in national parks in the United States suggest that Brucella has a relatively sharply defined threshold for establishment and that the proportion of the host population infected increases as a relatively simple function of population density. Unfortunately, the threshold population for Brucella establishment in bison is low, a herd of at least 200 individuals; this makes it very hard to eradicate Brucella from wild populations. Simple calculations based on observed prevalence and recruitment data for the Yellowstone bison herd suggest that unacceptably high levels of culling would be required to eradicate brucellosis in the park. A simple mathematical model is used to describe aspects of the population dynamics of Brucella. The analyses suggest that an understanding of infectious disease dynamics is crucial to the management and conservation of wild and domestic ungulate species in and around national parks and other nature reserves. The consequences of disease control for the maintenance of biodiversity in other natural and captive communities need to be better understood.

Background. Recent studies have shown considerable variation in body fatness among children and adolescents defined as obese by a percentile rank for skinfold thickness. Methods. We examined the relationship between percent body fat and risk for elevated blood pressure, serum total cholesterol, and serum lipoprotein ratios in a biracial sample of 3320 children and adolescents aged 5 to 18 years. Equations developed specifically for children using the sum of subscapular (S) and triceps (T) skinfolds were used to estimate percent fat. The S/T ratio provided an index of trunkal fat patterning. Results. Significant overrepresentation (20%) of the uppermost quintile (UQ) for cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors was evident at or above 25% fat in males (32.2% to 37.3% in UQ) and at or above 30% fat in females (26.6% to 45.4% in UQ), even after adjusting for age, race, fasting status, and trunkal fat patterning. Conclusions. These data support the concept of body fatness standards in White and Black children and adolescents as significant predictors of CVD risk factors. Potential applications of these obesity standards, include epidemiologic surveys, pediatric health screenings, and youth fitness tests