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There are worldwide approximately 4.3 million coffee ( Coffea arabica ) producing smallholders generating a large share of tropical developing countries’ gross domestic product, notably in Central America. Their livelihoods and coffee production are facing major challenges due to projected climate change, requiring adaptation decisions that may range from changes in management practices to changes in crops or migration. Since management practices such as shade use and reforestation influence both climate vulnerability and carbon stocks in coffee, there may be synergies between climate change adaptation and mitigation that could make it advantageous to jointly pursue both objectives. In some cases, carbon accounting for mitigation actions might even be used to incentivize and subsidize adaptation actions. To assess potential synergies between climate change mitigation and adaptation in smallholder coffee production systems, we quantified (i) the potential of changes in coffee production and processing practices as well as other livelihood activities to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions, (ii) coffee farmers’ climate change vulnerability and need for adaptation, including the possibility of carbon markets subsidizing adaptation. We worked with smallholder organic coffee farmers in Northern Nicaragua, using workshops, interviews, farm visits and the Cool Farm Tool software to calculate greenhouse gas balances of coffee farms. From the 12 activities found to be relevant for adaptation, two showed strong and five showed modest synergies with mitigation. Afforestation of degraded areas with coffee agroforestry systems and boundary tree plantings resulted in the highest synergies between adaptation and mitigation. Financing possibilities for joint adaptation-mitigation activities could arise through carbon offsetting, carbon insetting, and carbon footprint reductions. Non-monetary benefits such as technical assistance and capacity building could be effective in promoting such synergies at low transaction costs.

Heat waves, such as the one that struck European Russia in 2010, are among the major dangers of climate change. The population shift to large cities and southern regions observed in Russia, together with warming, increases the risks from heat waves. In this paper, we provide estimates of current and future population exposure to heat waves in Russian regions under the projection scenarios introduced by IPCC for the mid-21 century. We aim at identifying regions most at risk and in need of adaptation strategies and at assessing the contribution of climate change and population dynamics to future changes in population exposure. We use both absolute and relative measures to detect extreme summer daily temperatures and the high-resolution population data for the current period and 2050. Our results show an increase in the aggregate exposure from 4.76 billion person-days in the current period to 5.86 and 7.52 billion person-days under the soft and hard scenarios, respectively, notably in the areas where absolute maximum summer temperatures exceed 30 °C and 35 °C. Against the overall population decline, the increase in exposure is mainly driven by the climatic factor: by the widespread increase in the number of relatively very warm days, up to most of the season in the coastal areas of the Black and Caspian Seas and in the Caucuses, and by the geographical expansion of the zone of absolute high temperatures above 30 °C into the densely populated regions of Russia’s Main Settlement Belt in Middle Russia, the southern Urals and Siberia. The projected more extreme climate put at risk the regions with large urban agglomerations and a relatively high population density making heat waves to increasingly become a metropolis-related risk, and the few regions that are projected to grow in population size, both through migration inflows, such as Krasnodar Krai, Moscow region, and Tyumen region, and through natural increase, such as the republics of the Caucasus.

The climate is changing, and the Eastern Europe and Central Asia (ECA) region is vulnerable to the consequences. Many of the region's countries are facing warmer temperatures, a changing hydrology, and more extremes, droughts, floods, heat waves, windstorms, and forest fires. This book presents an overview of what adaptation to climate change might mean for Eastern Europe and Central Asia. It starts with a discussion of emerging best-practice adaptation planning around the world and a review of the latest climate projections. It then discusses possible actions to improve resilience organized around impacts on health, natural resources (water, biodiversity, and the coastal environment), the 'unbuilt' environment (agriculture and forestry), and the built environment (infrastructure and housing). The last chapter concludes with a discussion of two areas in great need of strengthening given the changing climate: disaster preparedness and hydro-meteorological services. This book has four key messages: a) contrary to popular perception, Eastern Europe and Central Asia face significant threats from climate change, with a number of the most serious risks already in evidence; b) vulnerability over the next 10 to 20 years is likely to be dominated by socioeconomic factors and legacy issues; c) even countries and sectors that stand to benefit from climate change are poorly positioned to do so; and d) the next decade offers a window of opportunity for ECA countries to make their development more resilient to climate change while reaping numerous co-benefits.

Governments and corporations around the world are increasingly pressured to manage climaterelated business risks and reduce their carbon footprint. Consequently, a growing number of corporations have started implementing internal carbon pricing (ICP) programs, assigning a monetary value to their carbon emissions as a mitigation and adaptation mechanism. This paper explores the motives underlying voluntary ICP adoption and examines whether a firm's exposure to climate-related risks is a relevant driver of ICP adoption. Using a worldwide sample of firms reporting to the Carbon Disclosure Project between 2016 and 2018, we find that firm-level climate change exposure is significantly and positively related to the likelihood of ICP adoption. More specifically, the probability of adoption is largely linked to regulatory shocks and opportunity exposure. Moreover, we find that board independence acts as a moderator in the climate change exposure-ICP adoption relation. The findings of this study shed light on the factors contributing to the acceleration in ICP implementation in the context of a coordinated effort between public and private sectors to reduce global emissions.

Guided by the transactional model of stress and coping, we examined the association between climate change exposure and climate change worry among Israeli adults, with the interplay of risk appraisal, collective efficacy, age, and gender. Using an online survey with 402 participants, we found moderate levels of climate change worry. Higher climate change exposure, increased risk appraisal, and greater collective efficacy were associated with higher worry levels. Climate change risk appraisal mediated the relationship between climate change exposure and worry, whereas gender moderated the association between collective efficacy and worry. This study highlights the significant impact of climate change exposure on worry, emphasizing the roles of risk appraisal and collective efficacy, particularly among women, and underscores the need for tailored interventions to address emotional responses to climate change.

AIM: Climate change can lead to decreased climatic suitability within species' distributions, increased fragmentation of climatically suitable space, and/or emergence of newly suitable areas outside present distributions. Each of these extrinsic threats and opportunities potentially interacts with specific intrinsic traits of species, yet this specificity is seldom considered in risk assessments. We present an analytical framework for examining projections of climate change‐induced threats and opportunities with reference to traits that are likely to mediate species' responses, and illustrate the applicability of the framework. LOCATION: Sub‐Saharan Africa. METHODS: We applied the framework to 195 sub‐Saharan African amphibians with both available bioclimatic envelope model projections for the mid‐21st century and trait data. Excluded were 500 narrow‐ranging species mainly from montane areas. For each of projected losses, increased fragmentation and gains of climate space, we selected potential response‐mediating traits and examined the spatial overlap with vulnerability due to these traits. We examined the overlap for all species, and individually for groups of species with different combinations of threats and opportunities. RESULTS: In the Congo Basin and arid Southern Africa, projected losses for wide‐ranging amphibians were compounded by sensitivity to climatic variation, and expected gains were precluded by poor dispersal ability. The spatial overlap between exposure and vulnerability was more pronounced for species projected to have their climate space contracting in situ or shifting to distant geographical areas. Our results exclude the potential exposure of narrow‐ranging species to shrinking climates in the African tropical mountains. MAIN CONCLUSIONS: We illustrate the application of a framework combining spatial projections of climate change exposure with traits that are likely to mediate species' responses. Although the proposed framework carries several assumptions that require further scrutiny, its application adds a degree of realism to familiar assessments that consider all species to be equally affected by climate change‐induced threats and opportunities.

Climate change is a serious challenge faced by all plant and animal species. Climate change vulnerability assessments (CCVAs) are one method to assess risk and are increasingly used as a tool to inform management plans. Migratory animals move across regions and continents during their annual cycles where they are exposed to diverse climatic conditions. Climate change during any period and in any region of the annual cycle could influence survival, reproduction, or the cues used to optimize timing of migration. Therefore, CCVAs for migratory animals best estimate risk when they include climate exposure during the entire annual cycle. We developed a CCVA incorporating the full annual cycle and applied this method to 46 species of migratory birds breeding in the Upper Midwest and Great Lakes (UMGL) region of the United States. Our methodology included background risk, climate change exposure × climate sensitivity, adaptive capacity to climate change, and indirect effects of climate change. We compiled information about migratory connectivity between breeding and stationary non‐breeding areas using literature searches and U.S. Geological Survey banding and re‐encounter data. Climate change exposure (temperature and moisture) was assessed using UMGL breeding season climate and winter climate from non‐breeding regions for each species. Where possible, we focused on non‐breeding regions known to be linked through migratory connectivity. We ranked 10 species as highly vulnerable to climate change and two as having low vulnerability. The remaining 34 species were ranked as moderately vulnerable. In general, including non‐breeding data provided more robust results that were highly individualistic by species. Two species were found to be highly vulnerable throughout their annual cycle. Projected drying will have the greatest effect during the non‐breeding season for species overwintering in Mexico and the Caribbean. Projected temperature increases will have the greatest effect during the breeding season in UMGL as well as during the non‐breeding season for species overwintering in South America. We provide a model for adaptive management of migratory animals in the face of projected climate change, including identification of priority species, research needs, and regions within non‐breeding ranges for potential conservation partnerships.

This study examined differences regarding climate change pro-environmental behaviors (PEBs), comparing between individuals with chronic diseases and those without. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 402 adults, of whom 25% had a chronic disease. Participants completed measures for PEBs, climate change exposure (i.e., exposure to its effects), climate change risk appraisal, environmental self-efficacy, collective efficacy, and sociodemographic variables. Results revealed a significant difference between participants with and without chronic diseases in climate change risk appraisal. Having a chronic disease was associated with higher climate change risk appraisal (β = 0.16, p < 0.001), which in turn was associated with higher collective efficacy (β = 0.29, p < 0.001). The latter was associated with more PEBs (β = 0.10, p = 0.049). Furthermore, higher climate change exposure was associated with higher climate change risk appraisal (β = 0.49, p < 0.001), which in turn was associated with collective efficacy (β = 0.29, p < 0.001). The latter was associated with more PEBs (β = 0.10, p = 0.049). In addition, higher climate change exposure was directly associated with both self-efficacy (β = 0.33, p < 0.001) and collective efficacy (β = 0.10, p = 0.049), which in turn were associated with more PEBs (β = 0.28, p < 0.001 and β = 0.10, p = 0.049, respectively). This study highlights the need to provide efficacy-enhancing information in climate change messaging for PEBs in general. A threat component in environment-relevant messages for people with chronic diseases, specifically, should also be adopted.

Recovery plans are the main tool used for restoration of threatened species in Australia, and identification of key threatening processes is an important feature of them. The aim of this study was to identify how climate change can be incorporated into the recovery planning process using a case study of threatened vertebrates in a global biodiversity hotspot, southwestern Australia. Analysis of 79 recovery planning documents for threatened vertebrate species in the region found that prior to the year 2004, climate change was not included as a threatening process. Post 2004, 32 of 54 (59.3%) documents included climate change as a threatening process. Using bioclimatic modelling, 43 of these species were ranked in terms of their potential exposure to climate change, and a gradient of management intervention aimed at mitigating their exposure to climate change was proposed. This intervention gradient ranged from active management actions aimed at species potentially at risk of extinction due to climate change, through to preservation of habitat in species predicted to lose between 0 and 25% of their current population size. It was proposed that as a priority, the recovery documentation of the 20 species predicted to be most at risk and thus needing a high level of management intervention should identify climate change as a key threatening process, and that more comprehensive analyses of climate change vulnerability be undertaken for these species. Such an approach aimed at prioritising climate change mitigation in threatened species would be useful for other regions where it has been predicted that climate change could have a negative impact on biodiversity.

Climate change impacts will continue to worsen with rising greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, underscoring the growing necessity to foresee and comprehend the impact of climate change risks on economic activity. Using quarterly firm-level data of 209 firms from the People’s Republic of China (PRC) over the period Q1 2018–Q2 2022, this study estimates the impact of firms’ exposure to climate-related risks on their financial performance. The results indicate a notable adverse effect of climate change exposure on firms’ rate of return, with a lag of around two years. Firms located in more climate-vulnerable coastal areas and high-income provinces experience relatively greater negative impacts on their financial returns. Our findings have important policy implications for firms aiming to maximize their returns through enhanced climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts.