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Exploring Earth's surface
Earths surface isn't just dirt and rock. It features majestic mountains and verdant valleys, rolling rivers and violent volcanoes. Readers are whisked away on a tour of the planet and it's many fascinating landforms. They will see many of Earth's most interesting natural locations and learn how they were formed.
Book
A Dynamics of Surface Temperature Forced by Solar Radiation
Due to lack of a unified description of the Earth surface temperature, a generic dynamic equation is postulated as an inference from the special case of snow. Solar radiation is explicitly included in the formulation for transparent media such as snow, ice and water while implicitly through (conductive) surface heat flux for non‐transparent media such as soil. The physical parameters of the equation are medium thermal inertia, thermal and radiative diffusivity. The equation for transparent media reduces to the familiar force‐restore model of soil surface temperature when the penetration depth of solar radiation tends to zero. Proof‐of‐concept validation for snow surface temperature as a paradigm of transparent media at three sites in the Arctic and Antarctica confirms the postulated equation as a generic description of the dynamics of surface temperature.
Plain Language Summary
Surface temperature of the Earth is a primary indicator of Earth climate system. Change of surface temperature depends on conductive and turbulent heat transport processes at either side of Earth surface and the media (soil, air, water, snow, etc.) specific absorption of solar radiation. Understanding and simulating surface temperature is a long‐standing challenge in the study of energy and mass exchange at the Earth‐atmosphere interface. This study postulates a unified governing equation of the dynamics of surface temperature for all surface types (soil, water, snow/ice, etc.). The new dynamic equation is independent of the parameterization of heat transfer processes within the atmosphere and surface media. The classical force‐restore equation of surface soil temperature is shown to be a special case of the general equation. The new dynamic equation can be used for simulating surface temperature without using the coupled earth‐atmosphere models or for the specification of surface boundary conditions of temperature and/or heat fluxes required by coupled earth‐atmosphere models.
Key Points
A unified dynamic equation of surface temperature for all surface types is postulated
Explicit characterization of solar radiation absorption in the surface forcing for transparent media
Heat flux in the dynamic equation is parameterized using non‐gradient formula
Journal Article
Earth and Mars : a reflection
\"Earth and Mars relates in images and words the life story of two planets: both born in the dusty disk surrounding the young sun; each shaped by volcanic activity, wind, and water; but only one home to life\"--Provided by publisher.
Book
An On-Demand Web Tool for the Unsupervised Retrieval of Earth’s Surface Deformation from SAR Data: The P-SBAS Service within the ESA G-POD Environment
This paper presents a web tool for the unsupervised retrieval of Earth’s surface deformation from Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) satellite data. The system is based on the implementation of the Differential SAR Interferometry (DInSAR) algorithm referred to as Parallel Small BAseline Subset (P-SBAS) approach, within the Grid Processing on Demand (G-POD) environment that is a part of the ESA’s Geohazards Exploitation Platform (GEP). The developed on-demand web tool, which is specifically addressed to scientists that are non-expert in DInSAR data processing, permits to set up an efficient on-line P-SBAS processing service to produce surface deformation mean velocity maps and time series in an unsupervised manner. Such results are obtained by exploiting the available huge ERS and ENVISAT SAR data archives; moreover, the implementation of the Sentinel-1 P-SBAS processing chain is in a rather advanced status and first results are already available. Thanks to the adopted strategy to co-locate both DInSAR algorithms and computational resources close to the SAR data archives, as well as the provided capability to easily generate the DInSAR results, the presented web tool may contribute to drastically expand the user community exploiting the DInSAR products and methodologies.
Journal Article
Earthquakes, eruptions, and other events that change Earth
\"This exciting book explains how the shape of Earth can change with the sudden movement of Earth's crust or when molten rock explodes out of an opening in Earth's surface. Young readers will be fascinated to discover how volcanoes form--destroying the landscape and creating new landforms at the same time. They will also learn about tectonic plates and fault lines, the damage earthquakes can cause, and how to stay safe when an earthquake happens.\"--Publisher description.
Book
Forecasting the response of Earth's surface to future climatic and land use changes: A review of methods and research needs
In the future, Earth will be warmer, precipitation events will be more extreme, global mean sea level will rise, and many arid and semiarid regions will be drier. Human modifications of landscapes will also occur at an accelerated rate as developed areas increase in size and population density. We now have gridded global forecasts, being continually improved, of the climatic and land use changes (C&LUC) that are likely to occur in the coming decades. However, besides a few exceptions, consensus forecasts do not exist for how these C&LUC will likely impact Earth‐surface processes and hazards. In some cases, we have the tools to forecast the geomorphic responses to likely future C&LUC. Fully exploiting these models and utilizing these tools will require close collaboration among Earth‐surface scientists and Earth‐system modelers. This paper assesses the state‐of‐the‐art tools and data that are being used or could be used to forecast changes in the state of Earth's surface as a result of likely future C&LUC. We also propose strategies for filling key knowledge gaps, emphasizing where additional basic research and/or collaboration across disciplines are necessary. The main body of the paper addresses cross‐cutting issues, including the importance of nonlinear/threshold‐dominated interactions among topography, vegetation, and sediment transport, as well as the importance of alternate stable states and extreme, rare events for understanding and forecasting Earth‐surface response to C&LUC. Five supplements delve into different scales or process zones (global‐scale assessments and fluvial, aeolian, glacial/periglacial, and coastal process zones) in detail.
Key Points
We review models and data useful for forecasting Earth surface changes
We identify key knowledge gaps required to forecast Earth surface changes
We strategize how geomorphologists and Earth‐systems modelers can collaborate
Journal Article
Estimation of air temperature using the temperature/vegetation index approach over Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka
One of the critical variables characterizing the energy and water cycle at the earth’s surface is near-surface air temperature. This has massive significance in agrometeorological applications aimed at achieving sustainable agriculture. Remote sensing data can solve this problem both globally and regionally, particularly with non-weather station areas. This study investigated the temperature vegetation index (TVX) approach’s applicability to estimate air temperature at a satellite overpass in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Land surface temperature (LST) and surface reflectance products on an 8-day composite basis from MODIS were used for selected days in 2008. The TVX method used for a 9 × 9 moving window and the respective intercept and slope relation between the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and the LST were obtained. Thus, the relation was extrapolated to the maximum NDVI (NDVImax) received for this window to calculate the air temperature. Validation was performed over observations from four automatic weather stations (AWS). The overall results for the mapping of instantaneous air temperature were satisfactory for the Julian days corresponding to three months, i.e., February, September, and October, due to adequate vegetation cover. An overall comparison of observed and calculated values identified a root mean square error (RMSE) of 1.1 °C.
Journal Article
Fire in the sky : cosmic collisions, killer astroids, and the race to defend Earth
A \"historical survey about asteroid hits sustained by Earth and the defenses being prepared against future asteroid-caused catastrophe\"-- Provided by publisher.
Book
Olivine Weathering in Soil, and Its Effects on Growth and Nutrient Uptake in Ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.): A Pot Experiment
Mineral carbonation of basic silicate minerals regulates atmospheric CO(2) on geological time scales by locking up carbon. Mining and spreading onto the earth's surface of fast-weathering silicates, such as olivine, has been proposed to speed up this natural CO(2) sequestration ('enhanced weathering'). While agriculture may offer an existing infrastructure, weathering rate and impacts on soil and plant are largely unknown. Our objectives were to assess weathering of olivine in soil, and its effects on plant growth and nutrient uptake. In a pot experiment with perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), weathering during 32 weeks was inferred from bioavailability of magnesium (Mg) in soil and plant. Olivine doses were equivalent to 1630 (OLIV1), 8150, 40700 and 204000 (OLIV4) kg ha(-1). Alternatively, the soluble Mg salt kieserite was applied for reference. Olivine increased plant growth (+15.6%) and plant K concentration (+16.5%) in OLIV4. At all doses, olivine increased bioavailability of Mg and Ni in soil, as well as uptake of Mg, Si and Ni in plants. Olivine suppressed Ca uptake. Weathering estimated from a Mg balance was equivalent to 240 kg ha(-1) (14.8% of dose, OLIV1) to 2240 kg ha(-1) (1.1%, OLIV4). This corresponds to gross CO(2) sequestration of 290 to 2690 kg ha(-1) (29 10(3) to 269 10(3) kg km(-2).) Alternatively, weathering estimated from similarity with kieserite treatments ranged from 13% to 58% for OLIV1. The Olsen model for olivine carbonation predicted 4.0% to 9.0% weathering for our case, independent of olivine dose. Our % values observed at high doses were smaller than this, suggesting negative feedbacks in soil. Yet, weathering appears fast enough to support the 'enhanced weathering' concept. In agriculture, olivine doses must remain within limits to avoid imbalances in plant nutrition, notably at low Ca availability; and to avoid Ni accumulation in soil and crop.
Journal Article