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Natural disasters in the Ottoman Empire : plague, famine, and other misfortunes
\"This book explores the history of natural disasters in the Ottoman Empire and the responses to them on the state, communal, and individual levels. Yaron Ayalon argues that religious boundaries between Muslims and non-Muslims were far less significant in Ottoman society than commonly believed. Furthermore, the emphasis on Islamic principles and the presence of Islamic symbols in the public domain were measures the state took to enhance its reputation and political capital - occasional discrimination of non-Muslims was only a by-product of these measures. This study sheds new light on flight and behavioral patterns in response to impending disasters by combining historical evidence with studies in social psychology and sociology. Employing an approach that mixes environmental and social history with the psychology of disasters, this work asserts that the handling of such disasters was crucial to both the rise and the fall of the Ottoman Empire\"-- Provided by publisher.
Book
Status‐Seeking Through Disaster Relief: India and China’s Response to Turkey–Syria Earthquakes
Disaster relief cooperation has emerged as an active area of status-seeking by major powers. In recent decades, India and China have increasingly leveraged their disaster management capabilities to project their power globally. Disaster relief cooperation can be viewed through the lenses of the logics of both appropriateness and consequences. As “non-Western” powers, they have conventionally been known to contest disaster relief norms perceived by them as Western. Simultaneously, they have varied status-seeking approaches, guided by distinct geopolitical equations and involving different actors. Against this background, the article analyses the patterns and drivers of India and China’s status-seeking behaviour through disaster relief cooperation using the frameworks of the logics of appropriateness and consequences, in the case of the 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes. It delineates the actors and capabilities involved in their overseas disaster relief activities as well as their implications. It also investigates the strategic and normative imperatives, and geopolitical considerations of their disaster relief cooperation. The article argues that the status-seeking behaviour of India and China through disaster relief cooperation with Turkey and Syria is guided by an interplay between the logic of appropriateness and the logic of consequences, based on their motivations, capacities, and distinct contexts of the recipient countries.
Journal Article
Preliminary investigation of building damage in Hatay under February 6, 2023 Turkey earthquakes
On February 6, 2023, an
M
w
7.8 earthquake hit the south of Kahramanmaras prefecture, Turkey, followed by another
M
w
7.5 earthquake after nine hours in the middle region of the Kahramanmaras prefecture. More than 84,000 buildings collapsed or were severely damaged, and more than 50,000 lives were lost in Turkey and Syria. Some of the authors, as members of Chinese rescue team, entered Antakya, Hatay prefecture, and investigated the damaged buildings. This paper first summarizes the damage patterns of buildings and provides three reasons for the massive number of collapsed buildings; i.e., the lack of seismic measures for better ductility, site effects such as liquefaction and surface rupture, and pronounced low-frequency components of the ground motions. Next, the seismic responses of two typical buildings are calculated based on the geometric data estimated by visual inspection. The results imply that the resonance of the whole structure and the poorer ductility of key members resulted in the collapse of buildings. Finally, some conclusions are drawn. Note that although a large number of buildings were seriously damaged to collapse, the majority of buildings in the areas of extreme shaking were lightly or moderately damaged, which implies that well designed and constructed buildings were able to survive and protect human lives even in over-design earthquakes.
Journal Article
Anisotropy of the Near‐Field Coseismic Ionospheric Perturbation Amplitudes Reflecting the Source Process: The 2023 February Turkey Earthquakes
The East Anatolian Fault in southern Turkey ruptured on 6 February 2023, causing a Mw 7.8 earthquake (EQ1), one of the largest strike‐slip events recorded on land. ∼9 hr later, earthquake of Mw 7.7 (EQ2) occurred to the north of EQ1. We investigate here near‐field coseismic ionospheric perturbations (CIP) caused by acoustic waves (AWs) excited by coseismic vertical crustal movements. We find that observed CIP periods were somewhat longer for EQ1 than EQ2. EQ1 also showed azimuthal dependence in CIP amplitudes that cannot be explained by known factors such as geomagnetism and line‐of‐sight geometry. Numerical experiments revealed that CIP by EQ1 can be well reproduced by assuming a suite of sources along the fault that successively ruptured. Small but significant dependence of amplitudes and periods on azimuths were caused by interference of AWs from multiple sources. We also found that CIP amplitudes of strike‐slip earthquakes tend to be lower than dip‐slip earthquakes. Plain Language Summary Fault dislocations in earthquakes cause vertical movement of the surface and excite acoustic waves (AWs) in the overlying atmosphere which propagate upward with increasing amplitudes. Such waves reach the ionosphere and disturb electron density distribution there, causing disturbances in numbers of electrons along the line‐of‐sights connecting ground GNSS receivers and satellites. So far, such near‐field co‐seismic ionospheric perturbations are modeled by assuming single acoustic pulse from the surface, although large earthquakes often involve ruptures of multiple fault segments spanning hundreds of kilometers. Here we demonstrate that interference of AWs from these multiple sources makes differences in the perturbations amplitudes and periods at GNSS stations in different azimuths from the epicenter. Key Points Mw 7.8 and Mw 7.7 February 2023 Turkey earthquakes produced typical ionospheric perturbations For the first earthquake, we found small but significant difference in the perturbation amplitudes that cannot be explained by known factors By assuming multiple sources along the fault and interference of acoustic waves from them, we can explain the observed azimuthal asymmetry
Journal Article
Earthquake Environmental Effects and Building Properties Controlling Damage Caused by the 6 February 2023 Earthquakes in East Anatolia
On 6 February 2023, East Anatolia was devastated by two major earthquakes resulting in hundreds of thousands of collapses and tens of thousands of human casualties. This paper investigates the factors related to building properties and earthquake environmental effects (EEEs) that contributed to the building damage grade and distribution in southeastern Turkey. In regards to the building construction properties, the loose enforcement of the building code, the random urban planning solutions and the poor construction standards are the main construction deficiencies that led to one of the largest disasters in Turkey’s recent history. Regarding geological factors, the triggering of primary and secondary EEEs largely shaped the grade and distribution of damage. Where coseismic surface ruptures intersected with the built environment, heavy to very heavy structural damage was observed. This was evident in many cases along the ruptured segments of the East Anatolian Fault Zone (EAFZ). Liquefaction observed close to waterbodies caused damage typical of building foundation load-bearing capacity loss. The earthquake-triggered landslides affected mainly mountainous and semi-mountainous settlements characterized with pre-earthquake high related susceptibility. The high susceptibility to generation of EEEs was extensively confirmed in many cases resulting in extensive damage. The provided information highlights the importance of such studies for hazard mitigation and disaster risk reduction.
Journal Article
Source Model of the 2023 Turkey Earthquake Sequence Imaged by Sentinel-1 and GPS Measurements: Implications for Heterogeneous Fault Behavior along the East Anatolian Fault Zone
On 6 February 2023, a devastating doublet of earthquakes with magnitudes of Mw 7.8 and Mw 7.6 successively struck southeastern Turkey near the border of Syria. The earthquake sequence represents the strongest earthquakes in Turkey during the past 80 years and caused an extensive loss of life and property. In this study, we processed Sentinel-1 and GPS data to derive the complete surface displacement caused by the earthquake sequence. The surface displacements were adopted to invert for the fault geometry and coseismic slip distribution on the seismogenic faults of the earthquake sequence. The results indicate that the coseismic rupture of the Turkey earthquake sequence was dominated by left-lateral strike slips with a maximum slip of ~10 m on the East Anatolian Fault Zone (EAFZ) and the Sürgü fault (SF). Significant surface ruptures are recognized based on the geodetic inversion, which is consistent with the analysis of post-earthquake satellite images. The cumulative released moment of the two earthquakes reached 9.62 × 1020 Nm, which corresponds to an event of Mw 7.95. Additionally, the interseismic fault slip rates and locking depths along the central and western segments of the EAFZ were estimated using the high-resolution long-term velocity field. The results reveal significant lateral variations of fault slip rates and locking depths along the central and western segments of the EAFZ. Generally, the estimated fault locking zone showed good spatial consistency with the coseismic fault rupture of the Mw 7.8 shock on the EAFZ. The static coulomb failure stress (CFS) change due to the Mw 7.8 earthquakes suggests that the subsequent Mw 7.6 event was certainly promoted by the Mw 7.8 shock. The stress transfers from the fault EAFZ to the fault SF were realized by unclamping the interface of the fault SF, which significantly reduces the effective normal stress on the fault plane. Large CFS increases in the western Puturge segment of the EAFZ, which was not ruptured in the 2020 Mw 6.8 and the 2023 Mw 7.8 earthquakes, highlight the future earthquake risk in this fault segment.
Journal Article
Satellite Imagery for Rapid Detection of Liquefaction Surface Manifestations: The Case Study of Türkiye–Syria 2023 Earthquakes
The 6 February 2023 earthquake doublet (Mw 7.7 and Mw 7.6) that occurred on the East Anatolian Fault Zone (EAFZ) triggered a significant amount of soil liquefaction phenomena in SE Türkiye and NW Syria. The great areal extent of the affected area and the necessity of rapid response led to the adoption and improvement of a workflow for mapping liquefaction phenomena based on remote sensing data. Using satellite imagery, we identified 1850 sites with liquefaction manifestation and lateral spreading deformation. We acquired a thorough map of earthquake-triggered liquefaction based on visual mapping with optical satellite imagery (high and very high-resolution) and the aid of radar satellite imagery and interferometry. The majority of sites are found along meandering sections of river valleys, coastal plains, drained lakes, swamps, and lacustrine basins along the East Anatolian Fault, highlighting once again the influence of geomorphology/surficial geology on the distribution of liquefaction phenomena. A total of 95% of the liquefaction occurrences were mapped within 25 km from the surface trace of the fault, confirming the distance from fault rupture as a more effective tool for predicting the distribution of liquefaction than epicentral distance. Thus, taking into consideration the rapid documentation of these phenomena without the limitations in terms of time, cost, and accessibility of the field investigation techniques, this desktop-based approach can result in a rapid and comprehensive map of liquefaction from a strong earthquake, and can also be used as a future guide for subsequent field investigations for liquefaction hazard mapping.
Journal Article
Three-Dimensional Deformation of the 2023 Turkey Mw 7.8 and Mw 7.7 Earthquake Sequence Obtained by Fusing Optical and SAR Images
In February 2023, Mw 7.8 and Mw 7.7 earthquakes struck southeastern Turkey. Generating a coseismic 3D deformation field that can directly reflect the characteristics of surface deformation is important for revealing the movement mode of a seismogenic fault and analyzing the focal mechanism. Optical image sub-pixel correlation (SPC) only captures deformation in the horizontal direction, and SAR image pixel offset tracking (POT) obtains range deformation that is not sensitive to north–south deformation signals. Thus, neither of them can capture the complete 3D deformation alone. Combining them may be able to allow the monitoring of 3D deformation. In this study, we used Sentinel-2 optical images to obtain the horizontal deformation (east–west and north–south) and Sentinel-1 and ALOS-2 data to extract the range and azimuth offsets. The least-squares method was used to fuse the optical and SAR offsets to obtain the 3D deformation field of the 2023 Turkey earthquake sequence, which indicates that the two events were both left-lateral strike-slip earthquakes. The surface deformation caused by the two large earthquakes is mainly in the east–west direction. In the vertical direction, the two earthquakes caused a small-magnitude uplift and subsidence. The findings in this paper can be used as a reference for the study of coseismic 3D deformation.
Journal Article
Debris Management in Turkey Provinces Affected by the 6 February 2023 Earthquakes: Challenges during Recovery and Potential Health and Environmental Risks
On 6 February 2023, southeastern Turkey was struck by two major earthquakes that devastated 11 provinces. Tens of thousands of buildings collapsed and more were later demolished. During post-event field surveys conducted by the authors, several disposal sites set up in the most affected provinces were detected and checked for suitability. Based on field observations on the properties of sites and their surrounding areas as well as on the implemented debris management activities, it is concluded that all sites had characteristics that did not allow them to be classified as safe for earthquake debris management. This inadequacy is mainly attributed to their proximity to areas, where thousands of people reside. As regards the environmental impact, these sites were operating within or close to surface water bodies. This situation reveals a rush for rapid recovery resulting in serious errors in the preparation and implementation of disaster management plans. In this context, measures for effective debris management are proposed based on the existing scientific knowledge and operational experience. This paper aims to highlight challenges during earthquakes debris management and related threats posed to public health and the environment in order to be avoided in future destructive events.
Journal Article
Antimicrobial-Resistant Infections after Turkey/Syria Earthquakes, 2023
Increased rates of multidrug-resistant microbes have been reported after earthquakes. After the 2023 earthquakes in Turkey and Syria, the number of associated highly drug-resistant pathogens and nosocomial transmission will probably surge in hospitals treating injured patients. It is not too late to act to prevent antimicrobial-resistant infections from compounding these tragedies.
Journal Article