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In this paper we compare several types of economic dependency ratios for a selection of European countries. These dependency ratios take into account not only the demographic structure of the population, but also the differences in agespecific economic behaviour such as labour market activity, income and consumption as well as age-specific public transfers. In selected simulations where we combine patterns of age-specific economic behaviour and transfers with population projections, we show that in all countries population ageing would lead to a pronounced increase in dependency ratios if present age-specific patterns were not to change. Our analysis of cross-country differences in economic dependency demonstrates that these differences are driven by both differences in age-specific economic behaviour and in the age composition of the populations. The choice of which dependency ratio to use in a specific policy context is determined by the nature of the question to be answered. The comparison of our various dependency ratios across countries gives insights into which strategies might be effective in mitigating the expected increase in economic dependency due to demographic change.

In the studies on labour market change and transformation of employment relations, the growth of new forms of self-employment, including platform work, has raised a broad debate about how to define, classify, and analyse the wide range of positions within the heterogeneous category of self-employed workers. This article analyses the emergent methodologies used in European comparative labour statistics to identify forms of dependency in self-employment. Using the 6th wave of the 2015 European Working Condition Survey and the 2017 ad hoc module on self-employment from the European Labour Force Survey, this article discusses how the representation of dependent self-employment changes by adopting a different operationalization of economic and operational dependency. Findings show how different indicators of dependency change the representation of self-employment in different economic sectors, affecting our understanding of the transformation of working arrangements within self-employment and the boundaries between employment and self-employment.

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to assess the potential economic cost of the COVID-19 pandemic on China's macroeconomy and agri-food system and provide policy recommendations to stimulate economic growth and agri-food system development.Design/methodology/approachAn economy-wide multisector multiplier model built on China's most recent social accounting matrix (SAM) for 2017 with 149 economic sectors is used to assess the impact of COVID-19 on China's macroeconomy and agri-food system. SAM multiplier analysis focuses on supply chain linkages and captures the complexity of an interconnected economy.FindingsThe paper finds that both the macroeconomy and agri-food systems are hit significantly by COVID-19. There are three main findings. First, affected by COVID-19, GDP decreased by 6.8% in the first quarter of 2020 compared with that in 2019, while the economic loss of the agri-food system is equivalent to 7% of its value added (about RMB 0.26 trillion). More than 46m agri-food system workers (about 27% of total employment) lost their jobs to COVID-19 in the lockdown phase. The COVID-19 affects the employment of unskilled labor more than that of skilled labor. Second, when the economy starts to recover during the second and third quarters, the growth rate in the value added of the agri-food system turns positive but still modest. Many jobs resume during the period, but the level of agri-food system employment continues to be lower than the base. The agri-food system employment recovery is slower than that of other sectors largely due to the sluggish recovery of restaurants. Agri-food system employment drops by 8.6m, which accounts for about 33% of the total jobs lost. Third, although the domestic economy is expected to be normal in the fourth quarter, external demand still faces uncertainties due to the global pandemic. The agri-food system is projected to grow by 1.1% annually in 2020 with resuming export demand, while only by 0.4% without resuming export demand. These rates are much lower than an annual growth rate of 4.3% for the agri-food system in 2019. The results also show that, without resuming export demand, China's total economy will grow less than 1% in 2020, while, with export demand resumed, the growth rate rises to 1.7%. These rates are much lower than an annual GDP growth rate of 6.1% in 2019.Practical implicationsThe results show that continuously reducing economic dependency on exports and stimulating domestic demand are key areas that require policy support. The agri-food system can play an important role in supporting broad economic growth and job creation as SMEs are major part of the AFS. Job creation requires policies to promote innovation by entrepreneurs who run numerous SMEs in China.Originality/valueThis paper represents the first systematic study assessing the impact of COVID-19 on China's agri-food system in terms of value added and employment. The assessment considers three phases of lockdown, recovery and normal phases in order to capture the full potential cost of COVID-19.

There is a strong interdependency between public transfers and the shape of the economic lifecycle because these transfers facilitate and enable the decoupling of production and consumption over long time periods, most notably in childhood and retirement. The design of public transfers obviously influences the production and consumption and consequently also the degree of economic dependency of children and the elderly. We propose economic dependency ratios which are based on age-specific consumption and labour income or age-specific public contributions/benefits, respectively, illustrating them in a comparison of Austria and Sweden. Although these two countries are very similar economies in terms of production, income and the size of the public sector, there are remarkable differences in the design of public transfers, in their distribution over age-groups and consequently in the shape of the average economic lifecycle. Using the economic dependency ratios we show that the financial sustainability of the public transfer system depends beside the demographic developments strongly on its design: the Swedish system collects the contributions from a wider range of age groups, transfers a smaller share to the elderly and provides more support to younger generations, supporting them to invest in children of their own. These characteristics have a positive effect on the sustainability of the Swedish system: although in Sweden there is a larger share of the population in the age group 60+, the total economic dependency of elderly persons is lower.

This article analyses the importance of technological security and the role of information systems in reducing economic dependence, in the current global context marked by cyber and economic risks. In the first part, the fundamental concepts of technological security and information systems infrastructure are presented, highlighting their crucial role in economic processes and national security. The next chapter focuses on the risks generated by technological and economic dependence, including the vulnerabilities of national economies and case studies of countries affected by the lack of their own infrastructure. The article then proposes strategies for reducing this dependence, such as the development of national IT infrastructure, investments in research and development and support for local companies. Examples of international good practices are presented to illustrate successful models in strengthening technological independence. In conclusion, the importance of continuing investments in domestic technologies is emphasized and directions are proposed for the development of resilient and sustainable information systems, essential for the economic and security future.

After decades of lower or comparable mortality rates in rural than in urban areas of the U.S., numerous studies have documented a rural mortality penalty that started in the 1990s and has grown since the mid-2000s. The widening of the gap appears to be especially pronounced among non-Hispanic (NH) whites. However, the rural U.S. is not monolithic, and some rural places have experienced much larger mortality rate increases than others over the past 30 years. Drawing on restricted mortality files from the National Vital Statistics System (NVSS), I examine metro versus nonmetro and intra-nonmetro (divisional and economic dependency) all-cause and cause-specific mortality trends among working-age (25–64) NH white males and females, 1990–2018. Results show that the nonmetro mortality penalty is wide and growing and is pervasive across multiple disease and injury categories. Trends for females are particularly concerning. Smaller nonmetro declines in mortality from cancers and cardiovascular disease (throughout the 1990s and 2000s) and larger increases in metabolic and respiratory diseases, suicide, alcohol-related, and mental/behavioral disorders (throughout the 2010s) collectively drove the growth in the nonmetro disadvantage. There are also large divisional disparities (which are growing for females), with particularly poor trends in New England, South Atlantic, ES Central, WS Central, and Appalachia and more favorable trends in the Mid-Atlantic, Mountain, and Pacific. Mining-dependent counties have diverged from the other economic dependency types since the mid-2000s due to multiple causes of death, whereas farming counties have comparatively lower mortality rates. High and rising mortality rates across a variety of causes and rural places, some of which have been occurring since the 1990s and others that emerged more recently, suggest that there is not one underlying explanation. Instead, systemic failures across a variety of institutions and policies have contributed to rural America’s troubling mortality trends generally and within-rural disparities more specifically.

The development of coal mining in the Navajo Nation, the largest Indian reservation in the United States, is understood as a consequence of economic dependency, resource curse, modernization, cultural contradiction, and so on. Missing from these frameworks are the perspectives of indigenous actors who participate in these industries. This article draws on ethnographic fieldwork and interviews conducted with Navajo coal workers and community members during a 2013 lease renewal to analyze how a moral economy of Navajo coal workers accounts for the mobilization of Navajo labor in support of the industry, despite years of exploitation and environmental damage. This article's central argument is that the moral economy of Navajo coal workers is built on a subsistence logic, summarized in the Navajo idiom t'áá hwó ají t'éego, which emphasizes notions of \"hard work\" on one's \"traditional\" land and is produced in the collective conditions of a worker's union. Even as the future of coal looks bleak, understanding how this folk ideology mobilizes Navajo workers in support of a declining industry gives us a better understanding of the integration of indigenous peoples into capitalist processes. Key Words: coal, indigenous geography, moral economy, Navajo, resource geography. 在纳瓦霍族国这个美国最大的印第安保留区中的煤矿开发, 被理解为经济依赖、资源诅咒、现代化、文化冲突等结果。这些认识架构所缺少的, 是参与在这些产业中的原住民族行动者的视角。本文运用2013年採矿权租约展延期间与纳瓦霍族矿工和族人所进行的民族志田野工作与访谈, 分析纳瓦霍矿工的道德经济, 如何解释尽管常年的剥削与环境伤害, 纳瓦霍工人仍动员支持该产业。本文的核心主张是, 纳瓦霍工人的道德经济, 建立在生计逻辑之上, 并以纳瓦霍的俗语\"T'áá hwó ají t'éego\"概括之, 强调在自身的\"传统\"土地上\"勤奋工作\"的概念, 并且在工人工会的集体条件下进行生产。尽管煤矿的未来相当严峻, 理解此般民间意识形态如何动员纳瓦霍工人以支持一个衰败的产业, 让我们对于原住民族整合进入资本主义有更佳的理解。关键词: 煤炭, 原住民族地理学, 道德经济, 纳瓦霍人, 资源地理学 。 El desarrollo de la minería del carbón en la Nación Navajo, la más grande de las reservaciones indias de los Estados Unidos, es vista como una consecuencia de la dependencia económica, la maldición del recurso, la modernización, la contradicción cultural y así sucesivamente. Lo que no aparece en estos esquemas son las perspectivas de los actores indígenas que participan en estas industrias. Este artículo se basa en trabajo de campo etnográfico y entrevistas administradas en 2013 a obreros navajo que trabajan el carbón y a miembros de la comunidad, al renovarse el arrendamiento, con el fin de analizar cómo una economía moral de aquellos trabajadores puede explicar la movilización laboral navajo en apoyo de la industria carbonífera, pese a años de explotación y daño ambiental. El argumento central del artículo es que la economía moral de los trabajadores navajo del carbón está construida alrededor de una lógica de subsistencia, resumida en la expresión navajo t'áá hwó ají t'éego, la cual enfatiza nociones de \"trabajo duro\" en nuestra tierra \"tradicional,\" y es producida en las condiciones colectivas del sindicato del trabajador. Aun si el futuro del carbón luce sombrío, entender cómo esta ideología popular moviliza a los trabajadores navajo en apoyo de una industria en declive nos facilita una mejor comprensión de la integración de los pueblos indígenas en los procesos capitalistas. Palabras clave: carbón, geografía indígena, economía moral, Navajo, geografía de los recursos.

Objective: This study investigates the association between men's economic dependency during midlife and allostatic load, an indicator of chronic stress, and how this relationship varies with men's gender ideology. Background: Women are primary breadwinners in almost a third of heterosexual couples in the United States. Emerging research finds that female primary breadwinning (or men's economic dependency) is a threat to masculinity that has negative implications for men's midlife health. However, there is no quantitative evidence of the mechanisms linking men's economic dependency and health, particularly the role of stress, and whether men's gender ideology moderates this relationship. Method: Using two waves of Midlife in the United States data for men who remained with the same marital or cohabiting female partner between waves (N = 332), the authors estimate the relationship between men's economic dependency in Wave 1 and allostatic load in Wave 2. Results: There was no evidence of an association between men's economic dependency and higher allostatic load on average. However, gender ideology had a moderating influence; men's economic dependency was associated with higher allostatic load for those who espoused more traditional gender attitudes and lower allostatic load for those with the most egalitarian attitudes. Conclusion: The findings underscore the existence of multiple masculinities and suggest that economic dependence has a negative or positive influence on men's health depending on the meanings men attach to female primary bread-winning.

Background Intimate partner violence (IPV) in Kiribati affects nearly 68% of women, almost twice the global average. Despite higher educational attainment among women, IPV remains pervasive, highlighting the influence of patriarchal norms and economic dependence. This study examines how education, gender norms, and structural conditions intertwine to shape IPV risk. Methods A mixed-methods design was employed, combining a survey of 500 participants with 30 in-depth interviews, and 20 participants in 4 focus group discussions. Quantitative analysis included Principal Factor Analysis, Structural Equation Modeling, and regression; qualitative data were thematically analyzed. Results IPV rates declined from 65.4% among women with no formal education to 45.8% among those with tertiary education (n = 148), yet violence remained prevalent. Patriarchal norms (β = 0.68, p  < 0.001) and economic dependence (β = 0.72, p  < 0.001) had strong direct effects on IPV. Additionally, patriarchal norms indirectly influenced educational inequality via IPV (β = 0.42, p  < 0.05). Male education reduced IPV (β = − 0.75, p  = 0.0002), particularly under economic strain (interaction β = 0.30, p  = 0.048). Participants rated the effectiveness of national gender-neutral education policies poorly, with average implementation and integration scores ranging from 2.1 to 2.3 out of 5. Barriers, such as economic hardship (mean = 4.7) and stigma (r = − 0.71, p  < 0.001), correlated with IPV. Qualitative accounts echoed these findings, with one participant noting, “Education doesn’t change the way some men think.” Conclusions These findings demonstrate that in Kiribati, education alone cannot protect against IPV without addressing three reinforcing mechanisms: entrenched patriarchal norms, women’s economic dependence, and male educational disadvantage. Policy responses in this context must move beyond gender-neutral approaches to implement targeted, gender-responsive reforms that promote equitable norms, economic support systems, and inclusive education pathways for both women and men.

Recent years have seen great interest in the relationship between relative earnings and marital outcomes. Using data from the 1997 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, I examine the effect of relative earnings on infidelity, a marital outcome that has received little attention. Theories of social exchange predict that the greater one's relative income, the more likely one will be to engage in infidelity. Yet, emerging literature raises questions about the utility of gender-neutral exchange approaches, particularly when men are economically dependent and women are breadwinners. I find that, for men, breadwinning increases infidelity. For women, breadwinning decreases infidelity. I argue that by remaining faithful, breadwinning women neutralize their gender deviance and keep potentially strained relationships intact. I also find that, for both men and women, economic dependency is associated with a higher likelihood of engaging in infidelity; but, the influence of dependency on men's infidelity is greater than the influence of dependency on women's infidelity. For economically dependent persons, infidelity may be an attempt to restore relationship equity; however, for men, dependence may be particularly threatening. Infidelity may allow economically dependent men to engage in compensatory behavior while simultaneously distancing themselves from breadwinning spouses.