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Rabies is a notoriously underreported and neglected disease of low-income countries. This study aims to estimate the public health and economic burden of rabies circulating in domestic dog populations, globally and on a country-by-country basis, allowing an objective assessment of how much this preventable disease costs endemic countries. We established relationships between rabies mortality and rabies prevention and control measures, which we incorporated into a model framework. We used data derived from extensive literature searches and questionnaires on disease incidence, control interventions and preventative measures within this framework to estimate the disease burden. The burden of rabies impacts on public health sector budgets, local communities and livestock economies, with the highest risk of rabies in the poorest regions of the world. This study estimates that globally canine rabies causes approximately 59,000 (95% Confidence Intervals: 25-159,000) human deaths, over 3.7 million (95% CIs: 1.6-10.4 million) disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) and 8.6 billion USD (95% CIs: 2.9-21.5 billion) economic losses annually. The largest component of the economic burden is due to premature death (55%), followed by direct costs of post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP, 20%) and lost income whilst seeking PEP (15.5%), with only limited costs to the veterinary sector due to dog vaccination (1.5%), and additional costs to communities from livestock losses (6%). This study demonstrates that investment in dog vaccination, the single most effective way of reducing the disease burden, has been inadequate and that the availability and affordability of PEP needs improving. Collaborative investments by medical and veterinary sectors could dramatically reduce the current large, and unnecessary, burden of rabies on affected communities. Improved surveillance is needed to reduce uncertainty in burden estimates and to monitor the impacts of control efforts.

Anaplasmosis is a tick-borne disease (TBDs) caused by Anaplasma spp. In areas where TBDs are endemic, it is crucial to consider the animals’ immunological status in relation to these diseases. The true prevalence of bovine anaplasmosis, the percentage of animals with protective antibodies against this TBD, and the diagnostic characteristics of three tests (multiplex polymerase chain reaction (mPCR), competitive-inhibition enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA), and blood smear (BS)) were estimated using a Bayesian approach. A total of 620 samples were collected in two subtropical areas of Ecuador. A significant finding of this study is that approximately 70% of cattle in those endemic areas harbored protective antibodies against Anaplasma marginale . This elevated percentage may stem from persistent exposure with a high pathogen prevalence in ticks. The decline in cELISA specificity must be attributed to cross-reactivity with protective antibodies against Anaplasma spp. It is crucial to interpret this test outcome alongside exposure history and clinical manifestations. The elevated apparent prevalence detected by cELISA and BS should be contextualized with mPCR results. The high seroprevalence and infrequent clinical outbreaks suggest that the pathogen has achieved endemic stability. This study provides valuable insights into the dynamics of anaplasmosis in endemic areas and may serve as a foundation for devising TBDs control strategies in these areas.

Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) affects cloven-hoofed animals globally and has become a major economic burden for many countries around the world. Countries that have had recent FMD outbreaks are prohibited from exporting most meat products; this has major economic consequences for farmers in those countries, particularly farmers that experience outbreaks or are near outbreaks. Reducing the number of FMD outbreaks in countries where the disease is endemic is an important challenge that could drastically improve the livelihoods of millions of people. As a result, significant effort is expended on surveillance; but there is a concern that uninformative surveillance strategies may waste resources that could be better used on control management. Rapid detection through sentinel surveillance may be a useful tool to reduce the scale and burden of outbreaks. In this study, we use an extensive outbreak and cattle shipment network dataset from the Republic of Türkiye to retrospectively test three possible strategies for sentinel surveillance allocation in countries with endemic FMD and minimal existing FMD surveillance infrastructure that differ in their data requirements: ranging from low to high data needs, we allocate limited surveillance to [1] farms that frequently send and receive shipments of animals (Network Connectivity), [2] farms near other farms with past outbreaks (Spatial Proximity) and [3] farms that receive many shipments from other farms with past outbreaks (Network Proximity). We determine that all of these surveillance methods find a similar number of outbreaks – 2-4.5 times more outbreaks than were detected by surveying farms at random. On average across surveillance efforts, the Network Proximity and Network Connectivity methods each find a similar number of outbreaks and the Spatial Proximity method always finds the fewest outbreaks. Since the Network Proximity method does not outperform the other methods, these results indicate that incorporating both cattle shipment data and outbreak data provides only marginal benefit over the less data-intensive surveillance allocation methods for this objective. We also find that these methods all find more outbreaks when outbreaks are rare. This is encouraging, as early detection is critical for outbreak management. Overall, since the Spatial Proximity and Network Connectivity methods find a similar proportion of outbreaks, and are less data-intensive than the Network Proximity method, countries with endemic FMD whose resources are constrained could prioritize allocating sentinels based on whichever of those two methods requires less additional data collection.

Endemic zoonoses are found throughout the developing world, wherever people live in close proximity to their animals, affecting not only the health of poor people but often also their livelihoods through the health of their livestock. Unlike newly emerging zoonoses that attract the attention of the developed world, these endemic zoonoses are by comparison neglected. This is, in part, a consequence of under-reporting, resulting in underestimation of their global burden, which in turn artificially downgrades their importance in the eyes of administrators and funding agencies. The development of cheap and effective vaccines is no guarantee that these endemic diseases will be eliminated in the near future. However, simply increasing awareness about their causes and how they may be prevented—often with very simple technologies—could reduce the incidence of many endemic zoonoses. Sustainable control of zoonoses is reliant on surveillance, but, as with other public-sector animal health services, this is rarely implemented in the developing world, not least because of the lack of sufficiently cheap diagnostics. Public–private partnerships have already provided advocacy for human disease control and could be equally effective in addressing endemic zoonoses.

African Swine Fever (ASF) is one of the most complex and significant diseases from a sanitary-economic perspective currently affecting the world's swine-farming industry. ASF has been endemic in Sardinia (Italy) since 1978, and several control and eradication programmes have met with limited success. In this traditional ASF endemic area, there are three susceptible host populations for this virus sharing the same habitat: wild boar, farmed domestic pigs and non-registered free-ranging pigs (known as \"brado\" animals). The main goal of this study was to determine and predict fine-scale spatial interactions of this multi-host system in relation to the epidemiology of ASF in the main endemic area of Sardinia, Montes-Orgosolo. To this end, simultaneous monitoring of GPS-GSM collared wild boar and free-ranging pigs sightings were performed to predict interaction indexes through latent selection difference functions with environmental, human and farming factors. Regarding epidemiological assessment, the spatial inter-specific interaction indexes obtained here were used to correlate ASF notifications in wild boar and domestic pig farms. Daily movement patterns, home ranges (between 120.7 and 2,622.8 ha) and resource selection of wild boar were obtained for the first time on the island. Overall, our prediction model showed the highest spatial interactions between wild boar and free-ranging pigs in areas close to pig farms. A spatially explicit model was obtained to map inter-specific interaction over the complete ASF-endemic area of the island. Our approach to monitoring interaction indexes may help explain the occurrence of ASF notifications in wild boar and domestic pigs on a fine-spatial scale. These results support the recent and effective eradication measures taken in Sardinia. In addition, this methodology could be extrapolated to apply in the current epidemiological scenarios of ASF in Eurasia, where exist multi-host systems involving free-ranging pigs and wild boar.

Leptospirosis is one of the most common zoonoses in the world which is associated with a severe febrile disease in humans causing a variety of syndromes including meningitis, interstitial nephritis, hepatitis, and sometimes death. Leptospirosis is caused by different pathogenic Leptospira species divided into almost 30 serogroups and more than 300 serovars which are carried by some animal asymptomatic chronic infections. Humans can become infected through direct contact with animal urine or indirectly by coming into contact with fresh water or mud contaminated with urine. In this research, we looked for leptospiral DNA in urine samples from dogs living in a rural, low-income and highly endemic community in the coast of Ecuador. We used molecular biology and next-generation sequencing for the detection. Our results showed evidence of two Leptospira species, L interrogans and L. santarosai, genomes in three dogs. It has been widely known that animal carriers are typically infected with a single leptospiral strain. However, recent reports, including the present one, indicate that carrier animals may be coinfected with two or more leptospiral species.

Canine visceral leishmaniasis (CVL) is a widespread zoonotic disease in Brazil. This study aimed to identify and predict spatial patterns of CVL in an endemic city, Votuporanga, and examine disease associations with key environmental and anthropogenic factors at a fine spatial scale. First, we estimated the spatial clustering of CVL cases relative to non-cases from 8,146 dogs. Second, we assessed CVL density using a Kernel density ratio map. Third, we analyzed associations between disease occurrence and selected variables derived from the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), number of buildings, building area, and street density using binary logistic regression models. Finally, we predicted the spatial odds of CVL using a Generalized Additive Model (GAM) that incorporated the significant covariates. Our results revealed significant clustering of cases up to a range of 1.7 km. Mean NDVI, street density, and sparse vegetation were statistically significant, increasing the odds of CVL by 431%, 109%, and 100%, respectively, per unit change. The predictive performance of the GAM, evaluated through cross-validation, indicated that the model incorporating mean NDVI achieved the best fit, with an area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve of 0.74 (CI 0.72–0.76). Our findings demonstrate that CVL is widespread across the city, predominantly in urban fringe areas, with nearly 45% of the city classified as having increased odds of CVL (>1). In contrast, the downtown area exhibited lower odds of disease. Furthermore, we identified distinct parasite genotypes across the city, primarily in areas with higher disease odds. Altogether, our results highlight how biological and environmental data can be integrated into mapping to enhance the understanding of the spatial dynamics of disease transmission in urban areas.

'One Health' proposes the unification of medical and veterinary sciences with the establishment of collaborative ventures in clinical care, surveillance and control of cross-species disease, education, and research into disease pathogenesis, diagnosis, therapy and vaccination. The concept encompasses the human population, domestic animals and wildlife, and the impact that environmental changes ('environmental health') such as global warming will have on these populations. Visceral leishmaniasis is a perfect example of a small companion animal disease for which prevention and control might abolish or decrease the suffering of canine and human patients, and which aligns well with the One Health approach. In this review we discuss how surveillance for leishmaniases is undertaken globally through the control of anthroponootic visceral leishmaniasis (AVL) and zoonotic visceral leishmaniasis (ZVL). The ZVL epidemic has been managed to date by the culling of infected dogs, treatment of human cases and control of the sandfly vector by insecticidal treatment of human homes and the canine reservoir. Recently, preventive vaccination of dogs in Brazil has led to reduction in the incidence of the canine and human disease. Vaccination permits greater dog owner compliance with control measures than a culling programme. Another advance in disease control in Africa is provided by a surveillance programme that combines remote satellite sensing, ecological modelling, vector surveillance and geo-spatial mapping of the distribution of vectors and of the animal-to-animal or animal-to-human pathogen transmission. This coordinated programme generates advisory notices and alerts on emerging infectious disease outbreaks that may impede or avoid the spreading of visceral leishmaniasis to new areas of the planet as a consequence of global warming.

Brucellosis is a neglected zoonotic disease impacting agricultural economies, as well as animal and human health globally. In sub-Saharan Africa, brucellosis is considered endemic in many countries based on serological evidence, although the presence and distribution of specific Brucella species remain unverified due to limited bacteriological confirmation. Due to the economic importance and national/international trade routes, this cross-sectional study investigates Brucella prevalence in 4612 animals (cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs) from slaughterhouses in the Far-North, North, and West regions of Cameroon sampled between February 2021 and May 2023. The analysis includes serology (Rose Bengal Test and indirect Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay), culture, real-time PCR, and next-generation sequencing (NGS). Results show only Brucella abortus is present, primarily affecting cattle (8.3%) and goats (7.3%). NGS reveals the local B. abortus strain is related to the clade from Uganda and Sudan, indicating it is endemic to Africa, rather than introduced from outside the continent. These results confirm the presence of a genetically distinct African lineage and reinforce brucellosis as a major concern for both animal and public health. The study emphasizes the critical need for coordinated surveillance systems to support evidence-based control strategies, enhance disease monitoring, and reduce the risk of transboundary transmission. A large-scale livestock prevalence study in Cameroon identified Brucella abortus as the sole endemic species, primarily affecting cattle, and revealed its genetic link to African strains, underscoring the need for regional surveillance and control.

Efficient cattle production and provision of animal-sourced foods in much of Africa is constrained by vector-borne bacterial and protozoal diseases. Effective vaccines are not currently available for most of these infections resulting in a continuous disease burden that limits genetic improvement. We tested whether stimulation of innate immunity using the Toll-like Receptor (TLR) 7 agonist imiquimod, formulated with saponin and water-in-oil emulsion, would protect against morbidity and mortality due to Anaplasma marginale , a tick-borne pathogen of cattle highly endemic in west Africa. In Trial 1, haplotype matched Friesian x Sanga (F1) A . marginale negative calves were allocated to either the experimental group (n = 10) and injected with the synthetic TLR 7 agonist/saponin formulation or to an untreated control group (n = 10). TLR7 agonist/saponin injected calves responded with significantly elevated rectal temperature, enlarged regional lymph nodes, and elevated levels of IL-6 post-injection as compared to control group calves. All calves were then allowed to graze in pasture for natural exposure to tick transmission. All calves in both groups acquired A . marginale , consistent with the high transmission rate in the endemic region. The need for antibiotic treatment, using pre-existing criteria, was significantly lower in the experimental group (odds ratio for not requiring treatment was 9.3, p = 0.03) as compared to the control group. Despite treatment, 6/10 calves in the control group died, reflecting treatment failures that are typical of anaplasmosis in the acute phase, while mortality in the experimental group was 1/10 (odds ratio for survival was 13.5, p = 0.03). The trial was then repeated using 45 Friesian x Sanga calves per group. In Trial 2, the odds ratios for preventing the need for treatment and for mortality in the TLR7 agonist/saponin experimental group versus the control group were 5.6 (p = 0.0002) and 7.0 (p = 0.004), respectively, reproducing the findings of the initial trial. Together these findings demonstrate that innate immune stimulation using a TLR7 agonist formulated with saponin and water-in-oil emulsion provides significant protection against disease caused by tick borne A . marginale in highly susceptible cross-bred cattle, critically important for their potential to increase productivity for smallholder farmers in Africa.