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The Toxic Schoolhouse is a collection of articles on chemical hazards endangering students, teachers, and staff in the education system of the United States and Canada. Some of the articles were originally published in a special issue of New Solutions: A Journal of Occupational and Environmental Policy , but all have been updated and several new articles have been added. The book is organized in three sections. The first describes problems ranging from the failures of coordination, monitoring, and siting of school buildings to the hazards of exposure to toxic substances, including lead and PCBs. The second section captures the voices of activists seeking change and describes community and union organizing efforts to improve school conditions. The third section covers policy \"solutions.\" The authors include academics, union staff and rank-and-file activists, parent organization leaders, and public health professionals. Preface Acknowledgments Introduction PART I ~ The Problem Chapter 1. Who’s in Charge of Children’s Environmental Health at School? Jerome Paulson and Claire Barnett Chapter 2. Who’s Sick at School: Linking Poor School Conditions and Health Disparities for Boston’s Children Tolle Graham, Jean Zotter, and Marlene Camacho June 2012 Update on Who’s Sick at School Report Tolle Graham, Jean Zotter, and Marlene Camacho Chapter 3. Failing Our Children: Lead in U.S. School Drinking Water Yanna Lambrinidou, Simoni Triantafyllidou, and Marc Edwards Chapter 4. PCBs in School—Persistent Chemicals, Persistent Problems Robert F. Herrick Update on PCBs in School Robert F. Herrick Chapter 5. Healthy School Siting and Planning Policies: Linking Public Health, Education, and the Environment Alison K. Cohen PART II ~ Organizing for Change Chapter 6. “Serving Two Masters”—An Interview with School Teacher and Union Organizer Debra Askwith Madeleine Kangsen Scammell and Ema Rodrigues Chapter 7. “We Can’t Give Up, It’s Too Important”—Health and Safety Stories from Canadian and U.S. Schools Dorothy Wigmore Chapter 8. New Jersey’s Union-Centered Healthy Schools Work Eileen Senn Chapter 9. Negotiating Indoor Air—Case Report on Negotiation of Teachers’ Union, School Board on Air Contaminants Sarah Gibson and Charles Levenstein Chapter 10. School Custodians and Green Cleaners:Labor-Environment Coalitions and Toxics Reduction Laura Senier, Brian Mayer, Phil Brown, and Rachel Morello-Frosch PART III ~ Advances in Policy Chapter 11. Integrated Pest Management Policies in America’s Schools: Is Federal Legislation Needed? Andrea Kidd Taylor, Kyle Esdaille, and Jennifer Ames Chapter 12. Reducing Asthma Triggers in Schools: Recommendations for Effective Policies, Regulations, and Legislation Joan N. Parker Chapter 13. Building the New Schoolhouse: The Massachusetts School Building Authority Jennifer Ames and Charles Levenstein Contributors Index

Numerous environmental justice studies have confirmed a relationship between population characteristics such as low-income or minority status and the location of environmental health hazards. However, studies of the health risks from exposure to harmful substances often do not consider their toxicological characteristics. We used two different methods, the unit-hazard and the distance-based approach, to evaluate demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the population residing near industrial facilities in the City of Toronto, Canada. In addition to the mass of air emissions obtained from the national pollutant release inventory (NPRI), we also considered their toxicity using toxic equivalency potential (TEP) scores. Results from the unit-hazard approach indicate no significant difference in the proportion of low-income individuals living in host versus non-host census tracts (t(107) = 0.3, P = 0.735). However, using the distance-based approach, the proportion of low-income individuals was significantly higher (+5.1%, t(522) = 6.0, P <0.001) in host tracts, while the indicator for \"racialized\" communities (\"visible minority\") was 16.1% greater (t(521) = 7.2, P <0.001) within 2 km of a NPRI facility. When the most toxic facilities by non-carcinogenic TEP score were selected, the rate of visible minorities living near the most toxic NPRI facilities was significantly higher (+12.9%, t(352) = 3.5, P = 0.001) than near all other NPRI facilities. TEP scores were also used to identify areas in Toronto that face a double burden of poverty and air toxics exposure in order to prioritise pollution prevention.

Currently, water pollution represents a serious environmental threat, causing an impact not only to fauna and flora but also to human health. Among these pollutants, inorganic and organic pollutants are predominantly important representing high toxicity and persistence and being difficult to treat using current methodologies. For this reason, several research groups are searching for strategies to detect and remedy contaminated water bodies and effluents. Due to the above, a current review of the state of the situation has been carried out. The results obtained show that in the American continent a high diversity of contaminants is present in the water bodies affecting several aspects, in which in some cases, there exists alternatives to realize the remediation of contaminated water. It is concluded that the actual challenge is to establish sanitation measures at the local level based on the specific needs of the geographical area of interest. Therefore, water treatment plants must be designed according to the contaminants present in the water of the region and tailored to the needs of the population of interest.

Environmental contamination by fluorinated chemicals, in particular chemicals from the per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) class, has raised concerns around the globe because of documented adverse impacts on human health, wildlife, and ecosystem quality. Recent studies have indicated that pesticide products may contain a variety of chemicals that meet the PFAS definition, including the active pesticide ingredients themselves. Given that pesticides are some of the most widely distributed pollutants across the world, the legacy impacts of PFAS addition into pesticide products could be widespread and have wide-ranging implications on agriculture and food and water contamination, as well as the presence of PFAS in rural environments. The purpose of this commentary is to explore different ways that PFAS can be introduced into pesticide products, the extent of PFAS contamination of pesticide products, and the implications this could have for human and environmental health. We submitted multiple public records requests to state and federal agencies in the United States and Canada and extracted relevant data from those records. We also compiled data from publicly accessible databases for our analyses. We found that the biggest contributor to PFAS in pesticide products was active ingredients and their degradates. Nearly a quarter of all US conventional pesticide active ingredients were organofluorines and 14% were PFAS, and for active ingredients approved in the last 10 y, this had increased to 61% organofluorines and 30% PFAS. Another major contributing source was through PFAS leaching from fluorinated containers into pesticide products. Fluorination of adjuvant products and \"inert\" ingredients appeared to be limited, although this represents a major knowledge gap. We explored aspects of immunotoxicity, persistence, water contamination, and total fluorine load in the environment and conclude that the recent trend of using fluorinated active ingredients in pesticides may be having effects on chemical toxicity and persistence that are not given adequate oversight in the United States. We recommend a more stringent risk assessment approach for fluorinated pesticides, transparent disclosure of \"inert\" ingredients on pesticide labels, a complete phase-out of post-mold fluorination of plastic containers, and greater monitoring in the United States. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP13954.

Soil contamination by metals and metalloids (metal[loid]s) is a global issue with significant risks to human health, ecosystems, and food security. Accurate risk assessment depends on understanding metal(loid) mobility, which dictates bioavailability and environmental impact. Here we show a theory-guided machine learning model that predicts soil metal(loid) fractionation across the globe. Our model identifies total metal(loid) content and soil organic carbon as primary drivers of metal(loid) mobility. We find that 37% of the world’s land is at medium-to-high mobilization risk, with hotspots in Russia, Chile, Canada, and Namibia. Our analysis indicates that global efforts to enhance soil carbon sequestration may inadvertently increase metal(loid) mobility. Furthermore, in Europe, the divergence between spatial distributions of total and mobile metal(loid)s is uncovered. These findings offer crucial insights into global distributions and drivers of soil metal(loid) mobility, providing a robust tool for prioritizing metal(loid) mobility testing, raising awareness, and informing sustainable soil management practices. Evaluating soil metal(loid) mobility at large scales is nearly intractable by laboratory experiments. This study uses theory-guided machine learning methods to map the global distribution of soil metal(loid) mobility and analyzes its primary drivers.

The etiology of autism spectrum disorder is poorly understood. Few studies have investigated the link between endocrine-disrupting chemicals and autistic traits. We examined the relationship between gestational phthalates and autistic traits in 3- to 4-y-old Canadian children. We also investigated potential effect modification by sex and folic acid supplementation. We enrolled 2,001 of age during the first trimester of pregnancy between 2008 and 2011 from 10 cities in Canada. At 3-4 years of age, 610 children underwent neuropsychological assessments including the Social Responsiveness Scale-II (SRS-2) as a measure of autistic traits and social impairment. We measured 11 phthalate metabolites in maternal first trimester urine samples and assessed folic acid supplementation from reported intakes. We estimated covariate-adjusted differences in SRS-2 -scores with a doubling in phthalate concentrations in 510 children with complete data. Mean total SRS -score was 45.3 ( ). Children with higher gestational exposure to mono- -butyl (MBP) and mono-3-carboxypropyl (MCPP) concentrations exhibited significantly higher total SRS -scores, indicating greater overall social impairment, as well as higher scores on subdomains, indicating deficits in social cognition, social communication, social motivation, and restricted interests/repetitive behaviors. A doubling in MBP or MCPP concentrations was associated with 0.6 (95% CI: 0.1, 1.0) and 0.5 (95% CI: 0.1, 0.8) higher total SRS -scores. Associations were consistently and significantly stronger in boys ( ; 95% CI: 0.4, 1.6; ) compared with girls ( ; 95% CI: , 0.7; ) and among children who had lower prenatal folic acid supplementation ( ) ( ; 95% CI: 0.4, 2.3; ) compared with those who had adequate folic acid supplementation ( ) ( ; 95% CI: , 0.8; ). Higher gestational concentrations of some phthalate metabolites were associated with higher scores of autistic traits as measured by the SRS-2 in boys, but not girls; these small size effects were mitigated by first trimester-of-pregnancy folic acid supplementation. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP5621.

Few studies examining the associations between long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and mortality have considered multiple pollutants when assessing changes in exposure due to residential mobility during follow-up. We investigated associations between cause-specific mortality and ambient concentrations of fine particulate matter (≤ 2.5 μm; PM2.5), ozone (O3), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in a national cohort of about 2.5 million Canadians. We assigned estimates of annual concentrations of these pollutants to the residential postal codes of subjects for each year during 16 years of follow-up. Historical tax data allowed us to track subjects' residential postal code annually. We estimated hazard ratios (HRs) for each pollutant separately and adjusted for the other pollutants. We also estimated the product of the three HRs as a measure of the cumulative association with mortality for several causes of death for an increment of the mean minus the 5th percentile of each pollutant: 5.0 μg/m3 for PM2.5, 9.5 ppb for O3, and 8.1 ppb for NO2. PM2.5, O3, and NO2 were associated with nonaccidental and cause-specific mortality in single-pollutant models. Exposure to PM2.5 alone was not sufficient to fully characterize the toxicity of the atmospheric mix or to fully explain the risk of mortality associated with exposure to ambient pollution. Assuming additive associations, the estimated HR for nonaccidental mortality corresponding to a change in exposure from the mean to the 5th percentile for all three pollutants together was 1.075 (95% CI: 1.067, 1.084). Accounting for residential mobility had only a limited impact on the association between mortality and PM2.5 and O3, but increased associations with NO2. In this large, national-level cohort, we found positive associations between several common causes of death and exposure to PM2.5, O3, and NO2. Crouse DL, Peters PA, Hystad P, Brook JR, van Donkelaar A, Martin RV, Villeneuve PJ, Jerrett M, Goldberg MS, Pope CA III, Brauer M, Brook RD, Robichaud A, Menard R, Burnett RT. 2015. Ambient PM2.5, O3, and NO2 exposures and associations with mortality over 16 years of follow-up in the Canadian Census Health and Environment Cohort (CanCHEC). Environ Health Perspect 123:1180-1186; http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1409276.

Background: Population exposure assessment methods that capture local-scale pollutant variability are needed for large-scale epidemiological studies and surveillance, policy, and regulatory purposes. Currently, such exposure methods are limited. Methods: We created 2006 national pollutant models for fine paniculate matter [PM with aerodynamic diameter ≤ 2.5 um (PM2.5)], nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), benzene, ethylbenzene, and 1,3-butadiene from routinely collected fixed-site monitoring data in Canada. In multiple regression models, we incorporated satellite estimates and geographic predictor variables to capture background and regional pollutant variation and used deterministic gradients to capture local-scale variation, lhe national NO₂ and benzene models are evaluated with independent measurements from previous land use regression models that were conducted in seven Canadian cities. National models are applied to census block-face points, each of which represents the location of approximately 89 individuals, to produce estimates of population exposure. Results: The national NO₂ model explained 73% of the variability in fixed-site monitor concentrations, PM2.5 46%, benzene 62%, ethylbenzene 67%, and 1,3-butadiene 68%. The NO₂ model predicted, on average, 43% of the within-city variability in the independent NO₂ data compared with 18% when using inverse distance weighting of fixed-site monitoring data. Benzene models performed poorly in predicting within-city benzene variability. Based on our national models, we estimated Canadian ambient annual average population-weighted exposures (in micrograms per cubic meter) of 8.39 for PM2.5, 23.37 for NO₂, 1.04 for benzene, 0.63 for ethylbenzene, and 0.09 for 1,3-butadiene. Conclusions: The national pollutant models created here improve exposure assessment compared with traditional monitor-based approaches by capturing both regional and local-scale pollution variation. Applying national models to routinely collected population location data can extend land use modeling techniques to population exposure assessment and to informing surveillance, policy, and regulation.

Background Pregnant women are an especially important population to monitor for environmental exposures given the vulnerability of the developing fetus. During pregnancy and lactation chemical body burdens may change due to the significant physiological changes that occur. Developmental exposures to some persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have been linked with adverse health outcomes. Methods First trimester maternal and cord blood plasma concentrations of several POPs including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE)s and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) were measured in samples from 1983 pregnant women enrolled in the Maternal-Infant Research on Environmental Chemicals (MIREC) cohort. Predictors of exposure were also identified. Results In maternal plasma, there was >90 % detection for the perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluoroctane sulfonate (PFOS), perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS), and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE), oxychlordane and PCB 138 and 153. Cord blood plasma had much lower detection rates with low or very limited detection for most PCBs and PBDEs. The PFASs were the most frequently detected (23–64 %) chemical class in cord plasma. In a subset of 1st and 3rd trimester paired samples, PFAS concentrations were found to be strongly correlated and had ICCs ranging from 0.64 (PFOA) to 0.83 (PFHxS). The cord:maternal plasma concentration ratios ranged from 0.14 (PFOS) to 0.87 (oxychlordane, lipid adjusted). Similar to other studies, we found parity, maternal age, income, education, smoking status, pre-pregnancy BMI and fish consumption to be significant predictors for most chemicals. Those participants who were foreign-born had significantly higher concentrations of organochlorinated pesticides and PCBs. Conclusions In the MIREC study, multiple chemical contaminants were quantified in the plasma of pregnant women. In cord plasma PFOA had the highest detection rate. However, compared to other Canadian and international population studies, the MIREC participants had lower contaminant concentrations of these substances.