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The present study reports, the eco-friendly synthesis of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) using Equisetum diffusum D. Don. extract, a medicinal plant known for its therapeutic properties. Phytochemicals present in the extract served as reducing and stabilizing agents for synthesizing stable AuNPs with an average size range of 68.8 nm. The biosynthesized AuNPs were characterized using UV–vis spectroscopy, FTIR, XRD, SEM, EDX, and dynamic light scattering (DLS) methods, confirming their stability, morphology, and crystalline nature. The green synthesized ED@AuNPs exhibited promising biological activities, including broad-spectrum antibacterial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, with inhibition zones from 24 to 37 mm. The anticancer activity was assessed through an MTT assay against hepatic carcinoma (HePG2) cells, revealing dose-dependent cytotoxicity with maximum inhibition at 200 µg/mL (47.62%). Antidiabetic activity was demonstrated by starch hydrolysis and enzyme kinetics, with significant α-amylase inhibitory activity up to 70.85%, comparable to the standard drug Acarbose. Moreover, antioxidant activity was conformed through FRAP and DPPH assays, indicating strong free radical scavenging activity and reducing ability. The study demonstrates the potential of biosynthesized ED@AuNPs as multifunctional agents with applications in biomedicine, particularly in antibacterial, anticancer, antidiabetic, and antioxidant therapies, offering an eco-friendly and sustainable approach for nanoparticle synthesis.

The ethanolic extracts of three Equisetum species (E. pratense Ehrh., E. sylvaticum L. and E. telmateia Ehrh.) were used to reduce silver ions to silver nanoparticles (AgNPs). The synthesized AgNPs were characterized using UV-Vis spectrophotometry, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) measurements. FTIR data revealed the functional groups of biomolecules involved in AgNPs synthesis, such as O-H, C-H, C=O, C-O, and C-C. EDX spectroscopy was used to highlight the presence of silver, while DLS spectroscopy provided information on the mean diameter of AgNPs, that ranged from 74.4 to 314 nm. The negative Zeta potential values (−23.76 for Ep–AgNPs, −29.54 for Es–AgNPs and −20.72 for Et–AgNPs) indicate the stability of the obtained colloidal solution. The study also focused on establishing the photocatalytic activity of AgNPs, which is an important aspect in terms of removing organic dyes from the environment. The best photocatalytic activity was observed for AgNPs obtained from E. telmateia, which degraded malachite green in a proportion of 97.9%. The antioxidant action of the three AgNPs samples was highlighted comparatively through four tests, with the best overall antioxidant capacity being observed for AgNPs obtained using E. sylvaticum. Moreover, the biosynthesized AgNPs showed promising cytotoxic efficacy against cancerous cell line MG63, the AgNPs obtained from E. sylvaticum L. providing the best result, with a LD50 value around 1.5 mg/mL.

Mixed-linkage (1[rightward arrow]3,1[rightward arrow]4)-β- d-glucan (MLG) is a hemicellulose reputedly confined to certain Poales. Here, the taxonomic distribution of MLG, and xyloglucan, especially in early-diverging pteridophytes, has been re-investigated. Polysaccharides were digested with lichenase and xyloglucan endoglucanase (XEG), which specifically hydrolyse MLG and xyloglucan, respectively. The oligosaccharides produced were analysed by thin-layer chromatography (TLC), high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) and alkaline peeling. Lichenase yielded oligo-β-glucans from all Equisetum species tested (Equisetum arvense, Equisetum fluviatile, Equisetum scirpoides, Equisetum sylvaticum and Equisetum xtrachyodon). The major product was the tetrasaccharide β-glucosyl-(1[rightward arrow]4)-β-glucosyl-(1[rightward arrow]4)-β-glucosyl-(1[rightward arrow]3)-glucose (G4G4G3G), which was converted to cellotriose by alkali, confirming its structure. Minor products included G3G, G4G3G and a nonasaccharide. By contrast, poalean MLGs yielded G4G3G > G4G4G3G > nonasaccharide > dodecasaccharide. No other pteridophytes tested contained MLG, including Psilotum and eusporangiate ferns. No MLG was found in lycopodiophytes, bryophytes, Chara or Nitella. XEG digestion showed that Equisetum xyloglucan has unusual repeat units. Equisetum, an exceedingly isolated genus whose closest living relatives diverged > 380 million years ago, has evolved MLG independently of the Poales. Equisetum and poalean MLGs share basic structural motifs but also exhibit clear-cut differences. Equisetum MLG is firmly wall-bound, and may tether neighbouring microfibrils. It is also suggested that MLG acts as a template for silica deposition, characteristic of grasses and horsetails.

Background The horsetails (Equisetum sp) are known biosilicifiers though the mechanism underlying silica deposition in these plants remains largely unknown. Tissue extracts from horsetails grown hydroponically and also collected from the wild were acid-digested in a microwave oven and their silica 'skeletons' visualised using the fluor, PDMPO, and fluorescence microscopy. Results Silica deposits were observed in all plant regions from the rhizome through to the stem, leaf and spores. Numerous structures were silicified including cell walls, cell plates, plasmodesmata, and guard cells and stomata at varying stages of differentiation. All of the major sites of silica deposition in horsetail mimicked sites and structures where the hemicellulose, callose is known to be found and these serendipitous observations of the coincidence of silica and callose raised the possibility that callose might be templating silica deposition in horsetail. Hydroponic culture of horsetail in the absence of silicic acid resulted in normal healthy plants which, following acid digestion, showed no deposition of silica anywhere in their tissues. To test the hypothesis that callose might be templating silica deposition in horsetail commercially available callose was mixed with undersaturated and saturated solutions of silicic acid and the formation of silica was demonstrated by fluorimetry and fluorescence microscopy. Conclusions The initiation of silica formation by callose is the first example whereby any biomolecule has been shown to induce, as compared to catalyse, the formation of silica in an undersaturated solution of silicic acid. This novel discovery allowed us to speculate that callose and its associated biochemical machinery could be a missing link in our understanding of biosilicification.

This study aims to investigate the biological activities related to hair loss of Equisetum debile extracts, including 5α-reductase inhibition, interleukin-6 (IL-6) secretion reduction, and anti-oxidation. E. debile extracts were obtained by maceration in various solvents. Crude extract (CE) was obtained by maceration in 95% ethanol. Chlorophyll-free extract (CF) was the CE which of the chlorophyll has been removed by electrocoagulation. Hexane extract (HE), ethyl acetate extract (EA), and ethanolic extract (ET) were fraction extracts obtained from maceration in hexane, ethyl acetate, and 95% ethanol, respectively. The extracts were investigated for inhibitory activity against 5α-reductase and IL-6 secretion. Total phenolic contents (TPC) were investigated and antioxidant activities were determined by means of 2,2′-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS), 2,2′-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays. The inhibition of lipid peroxidation was determined by the ferric thiocyanate method. The cytotoxicity of the extracts on dermal papilla cells and irritation test by hen's egg test chorioallantoic membrane assay were also investigated. All extracts could inhibit 5α-reductase and decrease IL-6 secretion in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophage. The antioxidant activity of E. debile extracts was directly related to their TPC. ET which contained the highest TPC (68.8 ± 6.7 mg GA/g) showed the highest equivalent concentration (EC1) of 289.1 ± 26.4 mM FeSO4/g, TEAC of 156.6 ± 34.6 mM Trolox/g, and 20.0 ± 6.0% DPPH inhibition. However, EA exhibited the highest inhibition against lipid peroxidation (57.2 ± 0.4%). In addition, EA showed no cytotoxicity on dermal papilla cell line and no irritation on chorioallantoic membrane of hen’s eggs. In conclusion, EA was suggested as the most attractive ingredients for functional food and nutraceuticals because of the high inhibitory activity against 5α-reductase, IL-6 secretion, and lipid peroxidation inhibition.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease associated with subsequent damage to the bone joints with a global incidence rate of 0.5–1%. To combat with RA various commercially available anti-inflammatory drugs like non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are commonly practiced; however, their long-term exposure often results in eliciting gastrointestinal and renal toxicity. Given this, the scientific communities are searching for an alternative therapeutic option that seems less injurious and equally efficacious. Equisetum diffusum D. Don, from the Equisetaceae family, is a native pteridophyte species of the sub-Himalayan region of India and has been reported to have a diverse array of pharmacological properties. The decoction and macerated whole plant extract has been used by various tribal communities (like Tagin, Galo, Adi, Kukis, Meiteis, Mulam) throughout the tropical and sub-tropical Asian countries for the treatment of arthritis, bone fractures, back pain, and abrasives. The present research is focused on determining the anti-arthritic potential of E. diffusum whole plant methanol extract (EDME) in adjuvant-induced arthritic rats. Oral administration with 250 and 500 mg/kg b.w. doses of EDME significantly restored paw-edema, arthritic scoring, and normal body weight. EDME treatment also normalized the haematological, biochemical, radiological, and histological status when compared to the arthritic control rats. The methanol extract significantly ( p  < 0.05) attenuated arthritis progression by downregulating the gene expression of pro-inflammatory mediators, like COX-2, TNF-α, IL-6, and upregulating the expression of anti-inflammatory mediators PPAR-γ, Iκβ in the blood, in a dose-dependent manner. Significantly, EDME also reduced the serum concentration of COX-2, TNF-α, and IL-6 compared to arthritic control rats ( p  < 0.05). The treatment with EDME also normalized the oxidative stress level in liver by restoring the GSH level, CAT and SOD activities and reducing the elevated MDA level. HPTLC and LC–MS/MS analyses of EDME confirmed the presence of potent polyphenols (chlorogenic acid, 4-hydroxycinnamic acid) and flavonoids (kaempferol), thereby suggesting the anti-arthritic property of the plant. All our findings established the anti-arthritic potential of E. diffusum extract in chronic arthritis model on a strong ground.

Equisetum arvense L. (EAL) has a long history in traditional medicine for its ability to address various digestive and inflammatory conditions. Here, we aimed to evaluate the therapeutic potential of the EAL hydroalcoholic extract (HAEA) compared with the standard medications in a rat model of ulcerative colitis (UC) caused by acetic acid. Eighty-one male Sprague Dawley rats were acquired and randomly allocated into nine equal groups: healthy control group, negative control groups (receiving normal saline and carboxymethyl cellulose gel base), positive control groups (receiving asacol rectally and mesalazine orally), and test groups treated with different amounts of HAEA. At the end of the experiment (7 days), colonic injury was evaluated by macroscopic, biochemical, and stereological assessments. The effectiveness of HAEA on colonic tissue was proved by significantly decreasing the malondialdehyde (MDA) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) concentrations as well as myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity and increasing the superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) in comparison to negative control groups. Particularly, the HAEA gel 10% rectal enema was significantly effective in decreasing MDA and IL-1β, as well as increasing GPx and SOD activities in comparison to positive control groups ( P  < 0.05). According to the stereological evaluations, HAEA 600 mg/kg orally and gel 10% rectal enema-treated groups, as well as the positive control groups, had significantly higher epithelium, submucosa, and muscularis mucosa volume density in comparison to the negative control groups ( P  < 0.001). This study showed promising therapeutic effects in all HAEA-treated groups, particularly HAEA gel 10% rectal enema in the induced UC rat model compared to conventional treatments. Both i n vivo and in vitro findings indicate that EAL has the potential to be used as an additive therapeutic strategy in UC patients.

Equisetum myriochaetum is a semi-aquatic plant found on riverbanks that is commonly used in traditional medicine as a diuretic agent. Additionally, the genus Equisetum stands out for its content of the flavonoid kaempferol, a well-known antiproliferative agent. Therefore, in this study, E. myriochaetum ethanolic extract was tested in vitro against a cervical cancer cell line (SiHa). Additionally, the antioxidative activity was evaluated through a 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrilhidrazil (DPPH) assay. Finally, a molecular docking analysis of apigenin, kaempferol, and quercetin on the active site of β-tubulin was performed to investigate their potential mechanism of action. All fractions of E. myriochaetum ethanolic extract showed antioxidative activity. Fraction 14 displayed an antiproliferative capacity with a half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) value of 6.78 μg/mL against SiHa cells.

The Equisetaceae family, commonly known as horsetails, has been of scientific interest for decades due to its status as one of the most ancient extant vascular plant families. Notably, the corresponding species have found their place in traditional medicine, offering a wide array of applications. This study presents a comprehensive phytochemical analysis of polar secondary metabolites within the sterile stems of five distinct Equisetum species using HPLC–DAD-ESI-MSn. For this purpose, fresh plant material was extracted with acetone/water, and the resulting crude extracts were fractionated using dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, and n-butanol, respectively. The results reveal a complex array of compounds, including hydroxycinnamic acids, hydroxybenzoic acids, flavonoids, and other phenolic compounds. In addition, total phenolic contents (Folin–Ciocalteu assay) and antioxidant activities (DPPH assay) of the plant extracts were evaluated using spectrophotometric methods. The present comparative analysis across the five species highlights both shared and species-specific metabolites, providing valuable insights into their chemical diversity and potential pharmacological properties.

Recurrent aphthous stomatitis leads to ulcers that cause severe pain, which is a substantial burden on patients. Equisetum arvense extract (EA) is a crude drug that promotes wound healing of mucous membranes caused by perineal incision during childbirth and alleviates pain. Here, we elucidated the effects of EA on wound healing and pain in a stomatitis hamster model. After stomatitis induction, two different EA doses were continuously applied to the wound area through the intramucosal injection of acetic acid into the cheek pouch (stomatitis/100*EA group and stomatitis/EA group). The body weight and wound area were measured over time, and histological evaluation was performed after stomatitis induction. The wound area was harvested 10 h after stomatitis induction, and gene expression associated with pain and inflammation was analyzed using qPCR. The dorsal root ganglia of the rat spinal cord were isolated, dispersed, and cultured to examine the inhibitory effect of EA on the K + -evoked release of neurotransmitter substance P. In the stomatitis/100*EA group, a significant reduction in wound size was observed compared with the stomatitis/physiological saline (PS) group, and the weight gain rate was considerably higher. The stomatitis/EA group revealed similar histological changes in the wound and wound size as the stomatitis/PS group; however, the weight gain rate was considerably higher on day 7. The stomatitis/EA group suppressed the expression of inflammatory cytokine mRNA, such as Tnf-α and Il-6 , and Cox-2 mRNA in the wound area compared with the stomatitis/PS group. EA treatment reduced the upregulated substance P release from the dorsal root ganglia following high-concentration K + stimulation. EA alleviates pain in a stomatitis model by suppressing inflammatory cytokine expression in the wound area and substance P release from primary sensory neurons. Therefore, using oral care products containing EA is expected to suppress stomatitis pain.