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This review illuminates key findings in our understanding of grapevine xylem resistance to fungal vascular wilt diseases. Grapevine (Vitis spp.) vascular diseases such as esca, botryosphaeria dieback, and eutypa dieback, are caused by a set of taxonomically unrelated ascomycete fungi. Fungal colonization of the vascular system leads to a decline of the plant host because of a loss of the xylem function and subsequent decrease in hydraulic conductivity. Fungal vascular pathogens use different colonization strategies to invade and kill their host. Vitis vinifera cultivars display different levels of tolerance toward vascular diseases caused by fungi, but the plant defense mechanisms underlying those observations have not been completely elucidated. In this review, we establish a parallel between two vascular diseases, grapevine esca disease and Dutch elm disease, and argue that the former should be viewed as a vascular wilt disease. Plant genotypes exhibit differences in xylem morphology and resistance to fungal pathogens causing vascular wilt diseases. We provide evidence that the susceptibility of three commercial V. vinifera cultivars to esca disease is correlated to large vessel diameter. Additionally, we explore how xylem morphological traits related to water transport are influenced by abiotic factors, and how these might impact host tolerance of vascular wilt fungi. Finally, we explore the utility of this concept for predicting which V. vinifera cultivars are most vulnerable of fungal vascular wilt diseases and propose new strategies for disease management.

Fungal species involved in Esca cause the formation of grapevine wood necroses. It results in the deterioration of vascular network transport capacity and the disturbance of the physiological processes, leading to gradual or sudden grapevine death. Herein, for two consecutive growing seasons, a detailed analysis of the structural (wood necrosis and leaf discoloration) and physiological parameters related to the water use of healthy and esca-symptomatic grapevines was conducted. Measurements were carried out on 17-year-old grapevines that expressed, or not, Esca-leaf symptoms in a vineyard of the Bordeaux region (France). Whole-plant transpiration was recorded continuously from pre-veraison to harvest, using noninvasive sap flow sensors. Whole-plant transpiration was systematically about 40–50% lower in Esca-diseased grapevines compared with controls, and this difference can be observed around 2 weeks before the first Esca-foliar symptoms appeared in the vineyard. Unlike grapevine sap flow disruption, structural (e.g., leaf discolorations), functional (e.g., stomatal conductance, photosynthetic activity, phenolic compounds), and genetic (e.g., expression of leaf-targeted genes) plant responses were only significantly impacted by Esca at the onset and during leaf symptoms development. We conclude that sap flow dynamic, which was related to a high level of a white-rot necrosis, provides a useful tool to predict plant disorders due to Esca-grapevine disease.

This review compiles the available knowledge on the triple impact of hostpathogens-environment in the progress of the esca disease complex of grapevine. The perennial crop grapevine encounters different biotic and abiotic factors responsible for numerous changes at the various growth stages. This review provides increased understanding of the esca disease complex, with emphasis on (1) the nature of esca-associated fungi as endophytes or pathogens in grapevine, (2) the importance of grapevine genotype and age in relation to resistance or susceptibility to the pathogens, (3) the significant effects of climatic changes, especially drought, on pathogen development and symptomatology, and (4) the physio-biochemical changes in the grapevines arising from the biotic and abiotic interactions. Drought often provides conditions favouring disease development in plants. Physiological and biochemical changes in plants play critical roles in this topic. The constantly increasing economic impacts of esca disease in many grape-producing countries, and the broad lack of knowledge so far, require precise studies on the transcriptional responses to biotic and abiotic factors in grapevines, as effects of \"climate change\" develop. On the viticultural side, improved management of water and adjusted nutrition balance in vineyards may become useful strategies to mitigate the widespread damage caused by grapevine wood pathogens. Keywords. Climate change, esca disease complex, grapevine, water stress.

Among all causes of grapevine decline, Grapevine Trunk Diseases (GTDs) are major concerns for grape growers. This paper reviews knowledge and proposes hypotheses on two major GTDs, esca and Botryosphaeria dieback, and assembles a conceptual model. The objective was to collect information into a sequence, from grapevine nursery propagation processes, through foliar symptom expression, to plant death in mature vineyards. Pathogen infection and colonization steps in woody vine tissues, and the hypotheses that have been formulated to explain the outburst of foliar symptoms, are reported and discussed. Factors that could aggravate or repress GTD symptoms and incidence expansion are also addressed. Vine physiology and pathology together could expand understanding of these diseases. Knowledge and hypotheses that need validation are summarized, and a conceptual model is proposed to explain the occurrence of symptoms and the influencing factors. The model could be useful to cope with the complexity of GTDs, and as a starting point for research to unravel knowledge gaps and suggest new disease management strategies.

In esca disease affecting grapevines, Phaeomoniella chlamydospora and Phaeoacremonium minimum colonize the woody parts of the trunks and arms, where they obtain nutrition from xylem sap and, potentially, from residues resulting from the enzymatic breakdown of lignified cell walls, particularly osidic residues. We quantified the secretion of lignin peroxidase, manganese peroxidase and laccase by these fungi in woody tissues of selectively infected cuttings using immunolabeling and transmission electron microscopy. Our results indicated that the detection of these enzymes was generally higher in tissues infected with Phaeoacremonium minimum. These data were confirmed through immunodetection of enzymes secreted by hyphae of fungi grown in vitro. Additionally, we observed that the supply of various carbohydrates (mono, di, tri and tetrasaccharides and polymers) differentially influenced fungal growth and polypeptide secretion. Since some secreted polypeptides display detrimental effects on grapevine cells, these results raise the question of whether the carbohydrate environment could be a factor affecting the aggressiveness of these pathogens.

Grapevine wood fungal diseases such as esca are among the biggest threats in vineyards nowadays. The lack of very efficient preventive (best results using commercial products report 20% efficiency) and curative means induces huge economic losses. The study presented in this paper is centered around the in-field detection of foliar esca symptoms during summer, exhibiting a typical “striped” pattern. Indeed, in-field disease detection has shown great potential for commercial applications and has been successfully used for other agricultural needs such as yield estimation. Differentiation with foliar symptoms caused by other diseases or abiotic stresses was also considered. Two vineyards from the Bordeaux region (France, Aquitaine) were chosen as the basis for the experiment. Pictures of diseased and healthy vine plants were acquired during summer 2017 and labeled at the leaf scale, resulting in a patch database of around 6000 images (224 × 224 pixels) divided into red cultivar and white cultivar samples. Then, we tackled the classification part of the problem comparing state-of-the-art SIFT encoding and pre-trained deep learning feature extractors for the classification of database patches. In the best case, 91% overall accuracy was obtained using deep features extracted from MobileNet network trained on ImageNet database, demonstrating the efficiency of simple transfer learning approaches without the need to design an ad-hoc specific feature extractor. The third part aimed at disease detection (using bounding boxes) within full plant images. For this purpose, we integrated the deep learning base network within a “one-step” detection network (RetinaNet), allowing us to perform detection queries in real time (approximately six frames per second on GPU). Recall/Precision (RP) and Average Precision (AP) metrics then allowed us to evaluate the performance of the network on a 91-image (plants) validation database. Overall, 90% precision for a 40% recall was obtained while best esca AP was about 70%. Good correlation between annotated and detected symptomatic surface per plant was also obtained, meaning slightly symptomatic plants can be efficiently separated from severely attacked plants.

Grapevines (Vitis vinifera L.) are one of the most economically relevant crops worldwide, yet they are highly vulnerable to various diseases, causing substantial economic losses for winegrowers. This systematic review evaluates the application of remote sensing and proximal tools for vineyard disease detection, addressing current capabilities, gaps, and future directions in sensor-based field monitoring of grapevine diseases. The review covers 104 studies published between 2008 and October 2024, identified through searches in Scopus and Web of Science, conducted on 25 January 2024, and updated on 10 October 2024. The included studies focused exclusively on the sensor-based detection of grapevine diseases, while excluded studies were not related to grapevine diseases, did not use remote or proximal sensing, or were not conducted in field conditions. The most studied diseases include downy mildew, powdery mildew, Flavescence dorée, esca complex, rots, and viral diseases. The main sensors identified for disease detection are RGB, multispectral, hyperspectral sensors, and field spectroscopy. A trend identified in recent published research is the integration of artificial intelligence techniques, such as machine learning and deep learning, to improve disease detection accuracy. The results demonstrate progress in sensor-based disease monitoring, with most studies concentrating on specific diseases, sensor platforms, or methodological improvements. Future research should focus on standardizing methodologies, integrating multi-sensor data, and validating approaches across diverse vineyard contexts to improve commercial applicability and sustainability, addressing both economic and environmental challenges.

Esca disease, the most widespread grapevine trunk disease in Europe, is characterized by both chronic and acute forms. In both cases, alterations in the plant’s physiological processes are significant and lead to yield losses and/or plant death. Studies have highlighted the effects of a mixture of foliar fertilizers and seaweeds in reducing foliar symptoms and improving both the quantity and quality of yield. These effects have now been evaluated on additional cultivars and in other vineyard areas. Furthermore, for the first time, the activity of the fertilizer mixture in reducing apoplexy and the resulting vine mortality has been assessed. During the 2022–2023 biennium, in four vineyards of the Lambrusco cultivar in the Province of Reggio Emilia, Northern Italy, affected by both chronic and acute forms of the disease, foliar applications of the mixture were carried out at 10-day intervals starting from the “nine leaves unfolded” BBCH (Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt and Chemical industry) stage 19 up to the “berries developing color” BBCH stage 83. The results confirmed the activity of the fertilizer mixture in reducing chronic symptoms, which appeared particularly pronounced in 2022, when rainfall quantity and distribution allowed regular development of phenological stages. In that year, in all vineyards, a reduction of approximately 50% and 60% in the incidence and severity of chronic leaf symptoms was recorded. Under these optimal growth conditions, treated vines generally showed superior yield and quality. Conversely, in 2023, characterized by heavy rains, smaller effects on foliar symptoms and no improvements in yield were observed. Applications of the mixture resulted in a significant reduction in apoplexy and, consequently, vine mortality, as verified in 2024. This effect did not appear to be influenced by climatic conditions. This study confirms that applications of the mixture aimed at reducing symptom expression and yield damage are a valid addition to the few available control practices. The positive effects observed on the acute form for the first time require further investigation.

Grapevines (Vitis vinifera) are important fruit producers in Jordan, and grapevine trunk diseases (GTDs) are suspected to cause problems in many Jordanian vineyards. This study aimed to estimate GTDs incidence and severity in selected vineyards, and to isolate and identify the causal agents associated with GTDs in this country. Field surveys were carried out and representative samples of diseased vines showing GTDs symptoms were collected to isolate and identify the causal organisms. Molecular analyses of DNA sequences of the Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) regions of fungal ribosomal DNA (rDNA) were used to confirm the morphological identifications of the fungal isolates. GTDs were present in all the surveyed vineyards. Mean GTD incidence was 44% across all the fields evaluated, ranging from 9 to 69% in individual vineyards. Disease severity ranged from 52–74% (mean = 62%) across all vineyards and locations. A total of 325 fungal isolates were recovered from infected grapevines. The most prevalent pathogens identified were those associated with Botryosphaeria dieback, including Diplodia seriata, Lasiodiplodia theobromae and Neofusicoccum parvum, followed by the Esca disease pathogens Phaeoacremonium parasiticum, P. aleophilum, P. rubrigenum, and Fomitiporia spp. Ilyonectria liriodendri and I. spp., known to be associated with black foot of grapevines, were also isolated. Plant pathogens causing vascular wilts and root rots, including Fusarium proliferatum, F. oxysporum, Verticillium spp., and Rhizoctonia solani, were also identified from diseased plant samples, and were found in mixed infections with GTDs pathogens. Most of the identified pathogens, except those associated with vascular wilt and root rot, are reported for the first time in Jordan. Results of this study indicate that GTDs are widespread in Jordan, and that there is urgent need to adopt a “national strategy” for GTD management in this country.

Grapevine trunk diseases (GTD) are currently one of the most devastating and challenging diseases in viticulture, leading to considerable yield losses and a remarkable decline in grapevine quality. The identification of the causal agents is the cornerstone of an efficient approach to fighting against fungal diseases in a sustainable, non-chemical manner. This review attempts to describe and expose the symptoms of each pathology related to GTD, the modes of transmission, and the harmfulness of recently reported agents. Special attention was given to new diagnostic tests and technologies, grapevine defense mechanisms, molecular mechanisms of endophytes fungal colonization, and management strategies used to control these threats. The present extended review is, therefore, an updated state-of-the-art report on the progress in the management of vineyards.