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Archaeological evidence indicates that pig domestication had begun by ∼10,500 y before the present (BP) in the Near East, and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) suggests that pigs arrived in Europe alongside farmers ∼8,500 y BP. A few thousand years after the introduction of Near Eastern pigs into Europe, however, their characteristic mtDNA signature disappeared and was replaced by haplotypes associated with European wild boars. This turnover could be accounted for by substantial gene flow from local European wild boars, although it is also possible that European wild boars were domesticated independently without any genetic contribution from the Near East. To test these hypotheses, we obtained mtDNA sequences from 2,099 modern and ancient pig samples and 63 nuclear ancient genomes from Near Eastern and European pigs. Our analyses revealed that European domestic pigs dating from 7,100 to 6,000 y BP possessed both Near Eastern and European nuclear ancestry, while later pigs possessed no more than 4% Near Eastern ancestry, indicating that gene flow from European wild boars resulted in a near-complete disappearance of Near East ancestry. In addition, we demonstrate that a variant at a locus encoding black coat color likely originated in the Near East and persisted in European pigs. Altogether, our results indicate that while pigs were not independently domesticated in Europe, the vast majority of human-mediated selection over the past 5,000 y focused on the genomic fraction derived from the European wild boars, and not on the fraction that was selected by early Neolithic farmers over the first 2,500 y of the domestication process.

Demographic events such as series of bottlenecks impact the genetic variation and adaptive potential of populations. European megafauna, such as wild boars (Sus scrofa), have experienced severe climatic and size fluctuations that have shaped their genetic variation. Habitat fragmentation and human‐mediated translocations have further contributed to the complex demographic history of European wild boar. Danish wild boars represent an extreme case of a small and isolated population founded by four wild boars from Germany. Here, we explore the genetic composition of the Danish wild boar population in Klelund. We genotyped all 21 Danish wild boars that were recently transferred from the source population in Lille Vildmose into the Klelund Plantation to establish a novel wild boar population. We compared the Danish wild boars with high‐density single‐nucleotide polymorphism genotypes from a comprehensive reference set of 1263 wild and domesticated pigs, including 11 individuals from Ulm, one of two presumed founder locations in Germany. Our findings support the European wild background of the Danish population, and no traces of gene flow with wild or domesticated pigs were found. The narrow genetic origin of the Danish wild boars is illustrated by extremely long and frequent runs of homozygous stretches in their genomes, indicative of recent inbreeding. This study provides the first insights into one of the most inbred wild boar populations globally established a century ago from a narrow base of only four founders.

Aim We focus on the biogeographical role of the Balkan Peninsula as a glacial refugium and source of northward post‐glacial dispersal for many European taxa. Specifically, we analysed the genetic structure and variation of wild boar (Sus scrofa) samples primarily from Greece, a region that has repeatedly served as a glacial refugium within the Balkan Peninsula. Location Continental Greece, the Aegean island of Samos and Bulgaria. Methods We analysed wild boar samples from 18 localities. Samples from common domestic breeds were also examined to take into account interactions between wild and domesticated animals. Phylogenetic analyses were carried out on a 637‐bp fragment of the mitochondrial DNA control region in 200 wild boar and 27 domestic pigs. The sequences were also compared with 791 Eurasian wild boar and domestic pig D‐loop sequences obtained from GenBank. Results Ninety‐four haplotypes were identified in the European wild boar data set, of which 68 were found in the Balkan samples and assigned to two previously described clades: the E1 European and Near Eastern clades. All of the continental samples clustered in the E1 clade and the samples from Samos fell into the Near Eastern clade, consistent with the island’s proximity to Asia Minor. Intriguingly, 62 novel haplotypes were identified and are found exclusively in the Balkans. Only six haplotypes were shared between wild boar and domestic pigs. Main conclusions Our data reveal numerous novel and geographically restricted haplotypes in wild boar populations, suggesting the presence of separate refugia in the Balkans. Our analyses support the hypothesis of a post‐glacial wild boar expansion consistent with the leading edge model, north and west from modern day Greece, and suggest little maternal introgression of Near Eastern and domestic haplotypes into wild Balkan populations.

Background: A retrospective sero-survey for evidence of West Nile virus (WNV) infection in European wild boar (Sus scorfa) was conducted in the Latium region, Italy, on stored serum samples of the period November 2011 to January 2012. Methods: Sera were collected from 168 European wild boars and screened for antibodies to WNV and other Flaviviruses by competitive enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA). All sera positive for Flavivirus antibodies by cELISA were further examined by virus neutralization test (VNT). To test the presence of Flavivirus RNA in samples, an RT-PCR was performed using a pan-Flavivirus primers pair. Results: Thirteen wild boars (7.73%) were seropositive for Flaviviruses. The hemolysis of serum samples limited the interpretation of the VNT for 7 samples, confirming the presence of specific antibody against WNV in a single European wild boar serum sample. The presence of ELISA positive/VNT negative samples suggests the occurrence of non-neutralizing antibodies against WNV or other antigen-related Flaviviruses. No samples resulted positive for Flavivirus by RT-PCR assay. Conclusion: Although a moderately high percentage of animals with specific antibody for WNV has been detected in wild boar in other surveillance studies in Europe, this has not been reported previously in Italy. Together, these data indicate that European wild boar are exposed to WNV and/or other related-Flavivirus in central Italy and confirm the usefulness of wild ungulates, as suitable Flavivirus sentinels.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of herbage allowance on pasture DM consumption by growing European wild boar. An additional objective was to evaluate the influence of pasture consumption on supplemental diet intake and BW gain. A previously sown grass-clover pasture was managed by cutting to obtain an herbage mass equivalent to 1,500 kg/ha DM. Areas of pasture were limited by fencing to obtain 3 different herbage allowances whereas the pasture was removed in other areas. Forty-eight purebred European wild boars (initial age of 120 d and initial BW of 14.4 kg) were grouped in pairs and each pair was randomly allotted to 1 of 4 treatments (6 pairs per treatment): no pasture (4 m(2); pasture removed), low (5.33 m(2); 400 g/d pasture DM available/wild boar), medium (8 m(2); 600 g/d pasture DM available/wild boar), and high (16 m(2); 1,200 g/d pasture DM available/wild boar). The treatment areas were moved daily with a 7-d rotation. For a 28-d period, wild boars entered their treatment areas from 0830 to 1630 h, after which they had free access to a supplemental diet for 1 h. Pasture consumption was estimated daily by cutting pasture samples pre- and postgrazing. Supplemental diet consumption was determined daily (feed offered minus remaining feed). Animals were weighed weekly. Pasture consumption differed (P < 0.001) among wild boars receiving different treatments, with cumulative consumptions of 3.0 and 3.9 kg DM/wild boar over 28 d for low and medium herbage allowances, respectively (P < 0.09), and 6.4 kg DM/wild boar over 28 d for high herbage allowance, with the latter consumption being greater (P < 0.001) than the consumption recorded with the decreased herbage allowance treatments. The supplemental diet consumption tended (P = 0.16) to be less in wild boars with greater herbage allowance. European wild boars with access to pasture had greater (8.48 vs. 6.27 kg; P = 0.002) BW gain than those without access to pasture. In conclusion, pasture consumption by European wild boars can be enhanced by increasing herbage allowance and greater BW gains can be achieved in wild boars with access to pasture compared with those with no pasture access.

A duplex real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique for the discrimination of two subspecies of sus scrofa in meat products has been developed. Primers and probes target at a sequence in the melanocortin receptor 1 (MCR1) gene being associated in the expression of wild-type coat color. Both PCRs amplify a 56-bp product of DNA from wild boar ( Sus scrofa scrofa ) and domestic pig ( Sus scrofa domestica ) likewise. One of the TaqMan probes specifically anneals to the wild boar sequence and the other one to the domestic pig sequence, their base sequence differing only in a single nucleotide (single nucleotide polymorphism, SNP). This qualitative-method allows the detection of genomic DNA from wild boar and domestic pig as low as 25 pg in a 25-μl reaction volume. No cross reactivities were found with either genomic DNA from various other meat species, or with other ingredients of meat products (e.g. spices). The PCR efficiency is >95% for both targets. Although both PCRs are impaired by the presence of bovine and porcine DNA (wild boar detection is impaired by domestic pig DNA and vice versa), the method is applicable for the detection of low levels of wild boar and domestic pig meat simultaneously in commercial meat products. The limit of detection (LOD) in meat samples is 2% for wild boar and 5% for domestic pig.

Background Wild boars ( Sus scrofa L.) are globally widely distributed, and their populations have increased in Europe during recent decades. Encounters between humans and wild boars are rare because of the predominantly nocturnal lifestyle of the latter, and wild boar management by hunting is a challenging task. Animal activity patterns are important for understanding the behaviour of a species. However, knowledge of detailed temporal patterns and an understanding of the drivers of wild boar activity at a fine temporal scale are lacking. Of special relevance for human–wild boar interactions (e.g., encounters, conflicts, and management) is the question of whether nocturnal activity depends on anthropogenic factors and, particularly, how local hunting regimes may affect activity patterns. We used GPS telemetry and acceleration measurements to shed light on this part of wild boar behaviour, observing 34 animals in Central Europe. Animals were tracked along a gradient of hunting pressure from hunting-free areas to areas with low or high hunting pressure. Fitted generalised additive models allowed predicting the probability of active behaviour under differing disturbance regimes precisely to day of year and time of day. Results The wild boars were predominantly nocturnal, with peak activity at approximately midnight. However, the data showed increased activity during daylight for wild boars that used no-hunting zones or reduced-hunting zones. Large areas with low disturbance levels promoted activity during daylight more than smaller areas with an intermediate disturbance regime. High air temperatures and locations within forests reduced the probability of active behaviour, whereas proximity to tracks used for forestry or agriculture was accompanied by a higher probability of activity. Conclusions We conclude that wild boars flexibly adjust their activity to their local environmental conditions, considering disturbances at the scale of long-term home ranges as well as actual small-scale landscape quality. Entire wild boar home ranges should be covered in the delineation of reserves intending to stimulate activity during daylight.

After the re-introduction of African swine fever virus (ASFV) genotype II isolates into Georgia in 2007, the disease spread from Eastern to Western Europe and then jumped first up to Mongolian borders and later into China in August 2018, spreading out of control and reaching different countries of Southeast Asia in 2019. From the initial incursion, along with domestic pigs, wild boar displayed a high susceptibility to ASFV and disease development. The disease established self-sustaining cycles within the wild boar population, a key fact that helped its spread and that pointed to the wild boar population as a substantial reservoir in Europe and probably also in Asia, which may hinder eradication and serve as the source for further geographic expansion. The present review gathers the most relevant information available regarding infection dynamics, disease pathogenesis and immune response that experimental infections with different ASFV isolates belonging to genotype I and II in wild boar and feral pigs have generated. Knowledge gaps in areas such as disease pathogenesis and immune response highlights the importance of focusing future studies on unravelling the early mechanisms of virus-cell interaction and innate and/or adaptive immune responses, knowledge that will contribute to the development of efficacious treatments/vaccines against ASFV.

Since 2007, African swine fever (ASF) has spread widely within Europe and beyond. Most affected countries recorded outbreaks in domestic pigs and cases in wild boar. Outbreak data from 2014 to 2021 were used to investigate the seasonal pattern of ASF in domestic pigs and wild boar across affected member states of the European Union, since knowledge of seasonal patterns may provide the potential to adapt prevention, surveillance and control during times of increased risk. In domestic pigs, a yearly peak was observed in many European countries in summer (predominantly in July and August). In wild boar, the patterns showed more variability. In many countries, there was a seasonal peak of ASF occurrence in winter (predominantly in January and December), with an additional summer peak in the Baltic States (predominantly in July) and a further spring peak in Poland (predominantly in March). The observed seasonal effects may be related to the abundance and population dynamics of wild boar and to seasonality in pig farming. Moreover, ASF occurrence may also be influenced by human activities in both domestic pigs and wild boar.

Knowledge of animal movement patterns is invaluable to understanding the spread of diseases among wildlife populations. One example is the recent African swine fever (ASF) outbreak among wild boar Sus scrofa populations across East Asia, where there is a lack of information on movements of this species. During a wild boar tracking project to inform abundance estimation methods in the Russian Far East's Sikhote‐Alin Biosphere Zapovednik, the combination of high variability in pulsed resources of acorns and pine nuts between fall 2019 and fall 2020, and the outbreak of ASF during the latter year, offered the unique opportunity to investigate the relationship between wild boar movements to exploit pulsed resources and the potential for disease spread. We analyzed relocation data from GPS‐collared wild boar in fall 2019 and 2020 and compared them to reference data in Belgium, representative of western Europe. We found remarkable differences in movement patterns, with Far East wild boar travelling large distances in fall 2020 (maximum observed of 77 km in four days) when the availability of acorns was low. In our resource selection analysis, we found clear selection for mast‐producing forest types that corresponded with the species of greater mast production (oak or pine) for that year. Comparing the displacement of individual wild boar along a moving window of 1–7 days (time between infection and the onset ASF symptoms) highlighted the potential of rapid ASF spread over long distances when wild boar are in search of pulsed resources. This work demonstrates the capacity of wild boar to move long distances to exploit resources and emphasizes the need to consider resource availability when predicting the speed and extent to which diseases such as ASF can spread.