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Purpose Building on both the uncanny valley and construal level theories, the analyses detailed in this paper aims to address customers’ explicit and implicit attitudes toward various service robots, categorized by the degree of their human-like appearance, namely, mechanoids (low human-likeness), humanoids (medium human-likeness) and realistic robots (high human-likeness). Design/methodology/approach The analyses reflect a mixed-method approach, across three studies. A qualitative study uses focus groups to identify consensual attitudes. An experiment measures self-reported, explicit attitudes toward the three categories of robots. Another experiment explores customers’ implicit attitudes (unconscious and unintentional) toward robots, using three implicit association tests. Findings Customers express both positive and negative attitudes toward service robots. The realistic robots lead to both explicit and implicit negative attitudes, suggesting that customers tend to reject these robots in frontline service settings. Robots with lower human-likeness levels generate relatively more positive attitudes and are accepted to nearly the same extent as human employees in hospitality and tourism contexts. Practical implications Because customers reject, both consciously and unconsciously, very human-like robots in service encounters, managers should leverage this key finding, along with the more detailed results, to inform their strategic introduction of robots into hospitality frontline service settings. Originality/value The combined qualitative and quantitative studies specify and clarify customers’ implicit and explicit attitudes toward robots with different levels of human-likeness, in the real-world setting of hospitality and tourism services. Such insights can inform continued research into the effects of these service innovations.

For decades, researchers across the social sciences have sought to document and explain the worldwide variation in social group attitudes (evaluative representations, e.g., young– good /old– bad ) and stereotypes (attribute representations, e.g., male– science /female– arts ). Indeed, uncovering such country-level variation can provide key insights into questions ranging from how attitudes and stereotypes are clustered across places to why places vary in attitudes and stereotypes (including ecological and social correlates). Here, we introduce the Project Implicit:International ( PI:International ) dataset that has the potential to propel such research by offering the first cross-country dataset of both implicit (indirectly measured) and explicit (directly measured) attitudes and stereotypes across multiple topics and years. PI:International comprises 2.3 million tests for seven topics (race, sexual orientation, age, body weight, nationality, and skin-tone attitudes, as well as men/women–science/arts stereotypes) using both indirect (Implicit Association Test; IAT) and direct (self-report) measures collected continuously from 2009 to 2019 from 34 countries in each country’s native language(s). We show that the IAT data from PI:International have adequate internal consistency (split-half reliability), convergent validity (implicit–explicit correlations), and known groups validity. Given such reliability and validity, we summarize basic descriptive statistics on the overall strength and variability of implicit and explicit attitudes and stereotypes around the world. The PI:International dataset, including both summary data and trial-level data from the IAT, is provided openly to facilitate wide access and novel discoveries on the global nature of implicit and explicit attitudes and stereotypes.

In our society, persons with disabilities are often subject to stereotyping and they may give rise to feelings of fear and rejection. These reactions refer to attitudes, that is, the more or less positive evaluations of an object (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). Scientific literature has been greatly interested in attitudes—toward persons with disabilities (Breen, 2018; Palad et al., 2016) and the education of students with disabilities (Desombre et al., 2019; Donath et al., 2023)—and the extent to which those attitudes are likely to predict inclusive behaviours (Ajzen, 1991). This purpose of this article is to take stock of the tools available to measure explicit attitudes toward persons with disabilities in various contexts. This systematic literature review was carried out using the Prisma method and the databases of APA PsycInfo, APA PsycArticles and the Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection; it groups together articles published in French and in English between January 2000 and June 2021. In total, 77 articles out of 837 were selected for review. The analysis of these articles allowed us to identify 22 tools to measure attitudes toward persons with disabilities. Comparisons between these tools are their uses are discussed in this article. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: journal abstract)

The present research examined the role gender non-conformity plays in attitudes toward transgender people. Study 1 with 232 U.S college students focused on attitudes toward female targets; Study 2 with 217 U.S. college students focused on male targets; and Study 3 with 462 mTurk workers directly compared attitudes toward female and male targets. In all three studies, participants read a vignette depicting either a transgender or cisgender target who presents as either gender conforming or gender nonconforming. In all three studies, we found that gender nonconforming targets and transgender targets were perceived as more threatening to the distinction between men and women, and in two of the studies, we found that gender conforming transgender targets were more threatening than conforming cisgender targets. We also found that anti-transgender prejudice, traditional gender role beliefs (Studies 1 and 2), and biological gender essentialism (Study 3) moderated these effects. Transgender targets who conform to the traditional binary gender role associated with their gender expression are perceived as transgressing distinct binary gender boundaries, which may be threatening because “passing” transgender individuals are harder to detect as transgressors and because their “passing” challenges the belief that gender is biologically essential and immutable. Furthermore, as anti-transgender prejudice, traditional gender role beliefs, and gender essentialist beliefs increase, liking decreased and threat increased for transgender and gender nonconforming targets. Working to alter gender essentialist beliefs may be a route to reducing anti-transgender prejudice.

Most sports are constitutive of the masculine identity, and these explicit gender perceptions influence sport participation. Less is known about implicit gender perceptions in sport, which may be instrumental in redefining the narrative of gender stereotypes and sport participation. This study explored gender differences in the implicit and explicit perceptions of sport. A total of 187 adults (45.45% female; Mage = 32.62 years, SDage = 13.07 years) completed an implicit association task by sorting sport words from the Canadian Women and Sport ‘She’s Got It All’ campaign into gendered categories. Participants self-reported their explicit attitudes towards 10 campaign posters. Using independent sample t-tests, a moderate effect was observed for gender differences in implicit attitudes for sport. Men demonstrated significantly stronger implicit attitudes linking sport to masculine characteristics compared to women. Men reported significantly lower explicit positive attitudes for liking the posters, feeling motivated by them, and perceived relevance. Men and women did not differ on levels of uneasiness and self-consciousness. Results suggest that men maintain implicit gendered attitudes towards sport and report lower positive explicit attitudes to intentional gender equity media. Understanding the counterproductive role that men can play when enforcing stereotypical gendered sport beliefs is vital for advancing girls’ and women’s engagement in sport.

Excessive digital media use (EDMU) represents a growing mental health concern among adolescents. However, it is unclear how implicit and explicit attitudes—automatic emotional vs. conscious rational evaluation—contribute to EDMU, and how these mechanisms differ according to subjective happiness. We analyzed data from 1,425 adolescents (M age = 13.12), to compare high ( n  = 312) and low subjective happiness ( n  = 171). Unhappy adolescents exhibited higher EDMU and impulsivity, and lower self-control compared to their happier peers. In this group, positive implicit attitudes toward social media predicted EDMU both directly and indirectly through impulsivity and self-control, while explicit attitudes had only a direct effect. No significant effects of attitudes were found among happy adolescents; however, with higher self-control having a protective effect. The results suggest that implicit and explicit attitudes influence EDMU differently, with their impact depending on subjective happiness, highlighting the need for a graded approach in intervention strategies.

People with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) experience stigmatization rooted in negative attitudes or prejudice toward them due to social awkwardness. However, little is known about implicit attitudes toward ASD, especially differences in attitudes compared to those of more visible conditions; physical disabilities. In this study, we implemented implicit association tests (IATs) to assess implicit attitudes. Sixty-three university students participated in IATs and answered questionnaires that measured explicit attitudes, social desirability, knowledge about—and familiarity with—disorders. The results demonstrated that implicit attitude toward ASD was significantly less negative than toward physical disabilities. Regarding the discrepancy, not socially awkward behavior but appearance of people with ASD can be evaluated as ‘in-group’ members and lead to less negative attitude compared with physical disabilities.

Historically, there has been a great deal of confusion in the literature regarding cross-cultural differences in attitudes towards artificial agents and preferences for their physical appearance. Previous studies have almost exclusively assessed attitudes using self-report measures (i.e., questionnaires). In the present study, we sought to expand our knowledge on the influence of cultural background on explicit and implicit attitudes towards robots and avatars. Using the Negative Attitudes Towards Robots Scale and the Implicit Association Test in a Japanese and Dutch sample, we investigated the effect of culture and robots’ body types on explicit and implicit attitudes across two experiments (total n  = 669). Partly overlapping with our hypothesis, we found that Japanese individuals had a more positive explicit attitude towards robots compared to Dutch individuals, but no evidence of such a difference was found at the implicit level. As predicted, the implicit preference towards humans was moderate in both cultural groups, but in contrast to what we expected, neither culture nor robot embodiment influenced this preference. These results suggest that only at the explicit but not implicit level, cultural differences appear in attitudes towards robots.

PurposeThe aim of this study is to evaluate the implicit and explicit attitudes of Generation Z (Gen Z) individuals toward the experience of visiting and getting to know traditional or virtual museums.Design/methodology/approachTwo studies were conducted. The first study assesses the implicit attitudes of Gen Z individuals through Implicit Association Tests (IAT) toward the experience of visiting traditional versus virtual museums. Considering the results of the study one, the second study proposes and validates a conceptual model through PLS-SEM approach about the explicit attitudes of this generation toward virtual museums.FindingsIn the first study, it was found that virtual museums are more successful at engaging and immersing participants than traditional museums for Gen Z. The second study emphasized the significance of meeting Gen Z expectations and ensuring effortless access to information in virtual experiences as this can lead to increased satisfaction and inspiration among this generation.Originality/valueThe originality of this study lies in its focus on Gen Z's attitudes toward virtual museums and the use of both implicit and explicit attitude measures to gain a comprehensive understanding of these attitudes. An interesting aspect emerges from the implicit attitudes displayed by Gen Z, indicating their preference for virtual museums as more captivating compared to traditional ones.

Based on the assumption that disclosing explicit populist radical-right (PRR) attitudes and voting intentions for PRR parties may be inhibited by a social desirability bias, this paper aims at developing a measure for implicit populist attitudes (IAT) and at assessing its explanatory power for the prediction of PRR party support. Using data from a German online survey (N = 898), the populism-IAT is tested against corresponding direct measures of populist attitudes and anti-immigrant attitudes to predict voting propensity for the German PRR party Alternative für Deutschland (AfD). Results reveal that social desirability concerns indeed restrict the likelihood of reporting a high propensity of PRR vote; however, direct measures turn out as best predictors for self-reported voting intentions. Inconsistencies between implicit and explicit attitudes may indicate sensitivity to social (un-)desirability perceptions, when attitudes are displayed on the implicit but not on the explicit level. We find such incongruencies for 9% of our respondents regarding populist attitudes, and for 21% regarding anti-immigrant attitudes, indicating that the latter are considered even more undesirable. In light of our findings, we discuss the potential explanatory power of implicit attitudes for less deliberate forms of political behavior and the assumption of populist and anti-immigrant attitudes still being regarded as socially undesirable in Germany.