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"FEMALE EMPLOYMENT"
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Beyond Rosie : a documentary history of women and World War II
\"More so than any war in history, World War II was a woman's war. Women, motivated by patriotism, the opportunity for new experiences, and the desire to serve, participated widely in the global conflict. Within the Allied countries, women of all ages proved to be invaluable in the fight for victory. Rosie the Riveter became the most enduring image of women's involvement in World War II. What Rosie represented, however, is only a small portion of a complex story. As wartime production workers, enlistees in auxiliary military units, members of voluntary organizations or resistance groups, wives and mothers on the home front, journalists, and USO performers, American women found ways to challenge traditional gender roles and stereotypes. Beyond Rosie offers readers an opportunity to see the numerous contributions women made to the fight against the Axis powers and how American women's roles changed during the war. The primary documents (newspapers, propaganda posters, cartoons, excerpts from oral histories and memoirs, speeches, photographs, and editorials) collected here represent cultural, political, economic, and social perspectives on the diverse roles women played during World War II.\"--Page 4 of cover.
Book
Building effective employment programs for unemployed youth in the Middle East and North Africa
This study surveys active labor market programs (ALMPs) in selected countries of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, identifies key challenges to their effective and efficient delivery, and proposes a policy framework for reforming public service provision. This study draws on data collected through surveys administered to public social, employment, and education agencies in selected MENA countries to identify key constraints and options for reforming publicly provided employment programs. Recent political transitions arising from the Arab Spring have contributed to the deterioration of labor market outcomes in the MENA region. In this context, ALMPs could become an important policy lever to address some of the challenges facing labor markets. These include: joblessness, skills mismatches, lack of labor market mobility, large and expanding informal sector, and lack of formal employment networks. The study also provides specific details on the beneficiaries, targeting, and expenditures of ALMPs during this same period.
eBook
FEMALE LEADERSHIP AND GENDER GAP WITHIN FIRMS
The authors evaluate a 2011 Italian law that installed a step-wise increase in gender quota that remains effective for three consecutive board renewals of listed limited liability firms. They link firmlevel information on board membership and board election dates with detailed employment and earnings records from the Social Security registers. Exploiting the staggered introduction of the gender quota regulation and variation in board renewal years across firms, the authors evaluate the effect of the board gender composition on measures of gender diversity in top positions over a period of four years. While the reform substantially raised the female membership on corporate boards, results show only moderate and imprecisely estimated spillover effects on the representation of women in top executive or top earnings positions.
Journal Article
The Evolution of Gender Gaps in Industrialized Countries
Women in developed economies have made major advancements in labor markets throughout the past century, but remaining gender differences in pay and employment seem remarkably persistent. This article documents long-run trends in female employment, working hours, and relative wages for a wide cross section of developed economies. It reviews existing work on the factors driving gender convergence, and novel perspectives on remaining gender gaps. Finally, the article emphasizes the interplay between gender trends and the evolution of the industry structure. Based on a shift-share decomposition, it shows that the growth in the service share can explain at least half of the overall variation in female hours, both over time and across countries.
Journal Article
The effect of women’s employment and education status and the role of health expenditures on breast cancer mortality
Introduction
Although there is research on the medical causes and effects of breast cancer, studies on environmental and social factors are quite limited. We aimed to analyze the impact of women's employment and education status, and the role of healthcare expenditures, on breast cancer-related deaths over time.
Methods
The study used Turkey's breast cancer mortality rate, updated by the World Health Organization between 2009 and 2023, and women's employment and education data from the World Bank Country Reports. Women's healthy life expectancy and healthcare expenditures were used as control variables. The study was designed in a longitudinal mixed model. Spearman’s rho and Generalized Linear Model analysis were used.
Results
Breast cancer mortality was significantly and positively correlated with female education (
r
= 0.954;
p
< 0.01) and life expectancy (
r
= 0.714;
p
< 0.01). Correlation between breast cancer mortality with female employment and health expenditure were insignificant (
p
> 0.05). effect of female education on breast cancer mortality was statistically significant (B = 157.661;
p
< 0.01). Effects of female employment, female life expectancy and health expenditure on breast cancer mortality were statistically insignificant (
p
> 0.05). There was a strong and positive correlation between female education and breast cancer mortality.
Discussion
The higher rate of breast cancer deaths among women with higher education levels, and the statistical significance of this relationship, suggests that educated women also have a poorer rate of breast cancer progression, and those factors such as environmental factors and stress may also contribute to this negative outcome. Our results show that focusing on risk factors caused by education is important in reducing breast cancer mortality.
Journal Article
The Nexus of Gender Equality and Children’s Participation in Early Childhood Education: A Longitudinal Study in the Italian Provinces
Early childhood education (ECE) is increasingly recognized as a crucial opportunity for children’s development and well-being. However, most studies at a policy level focused on public expenditure for ECE underestimating factors related to actual participation in ECE. We investigated at a local level the relationship between gender employment equality (GEE), gender wage equality (GWE), and children’s participation in ECE using a high-quality national data source collecting official statistics for 103 Italian provinces from 2009 to 2019. We adopted a standardized measure of gender equality, and we estimated mixed-effects linear models and Latent Markov models to disentangle the spatial–temporal pattern of the association. Results indicate that GEE, but not GWE, is associated cross-sectionally with the rate of children’s participation in ECE. We discovered 4 clusters of provinces, characterized by different degrees of estimated participation in ECE, and quite stable longitudinally. We showed that Central Italian provinces are the best performing. On this basis, acting to promote local policies focused on women’s empowerment and participation in the labor market, especially in Southern European countries, may also have beneficial effects in terms of reducing children’s disadvantage by improving participation rates in ECE.
Journal Article
COVID-19 Lockdowns and Female Employment: Evidence from the Philippines
Using labor force survey (LFS) data collected before and during the COVID-19 lockdowns in the Philippines, we showed that hard lockdowns had a larger negative impact on the employment of women who had minor children compared to women who did not have minor children. Among Southeast Asian countries, the Philippines was among the hardest-hit by the pandemic, in terms of both the number of infected and its economic toll. The large economic toll was partly attributable to the extreme and militarized lockdown imposed at the onset of the pandemic in the country’s three most populous and economically-important regions, namely Metro Manila, Calabarzon, and Central Luzon. Using difference-in-differences analysis on pooled LFS data, we showed that female household heads or spouses with children were significantly less likely to have paid employment during the hard lockdown compared to female household heads or spouses without children, even after controlling for important covariates. Among women with children, the employment losses were larger for women with two or more children, suggesting a lockdown-induced parenthood penalty for women in the labor market. This was due in part to the increased care responsibilities disproportionately shouldered by mothers during hard lockdowns, given that children were forced to be at home and do distance learning.
Journal Article
Gender gaps: back and here to stay? Evidence from skilled Ugandan workers during COVID-19
We investigate gender disparities in the effect of COVID-19 on the labor market outcomes of skilled Ugandan workers. Leveraging a high-frequency panel dataset, we find that the lockdowns imposed in Uganda reduced employment by 69% for women and by 45% for men, generating a previously nonexistent gender gap of 20 p.p. Eighteen months after the onset of the pandemic, the gap persisted: while men quickly recovered their pre-pandemic career trajectories, 10% of the previously employed women remained jobless and another 35% remained occasionally employed. Additionally, the lockdowns shifted female workers from wage-employment to self-employment, relocated them into agriculture and other unskilled sectors misaligned with their skill sets, and widened the gender pay gap. Pre-pandemic sorting of women into economic sectors subject to the strongest restrictions and childcare responsibilities induced by schools’ prolonged closure only explain up to 65% of the employment gap.
Journal Article
The Impact of Female Education, Trade Openness, Per Capita GDP, and Urbanization on Women’s Employment in South Asia: Application of CS-ARDL Model
This study examines the impact of female education and other control variables such as trade openness, per capita GDP, urbanization, and male employment on women’s employment opportunities in South Asian countries. The annual data from 1990 to 2020 were evaluated. After determining the existence of slope heterogeneity, cross-sectional dependence, and mixed order stationary in the panel data, the paper applied the Cross-Sectional Autoregressive Distributive Lag (CS-ARDL) model to estimate long and short-run impacts. At the same time, AMG, MG, and CCEMG models have been utilized for checking robustness and validating the findings. According to CS-ARDL findings, female education and trade openness have a significant positive impact on female employment in the short and long term. In contrast, GDP per capita and urbanization are diminishing female employment in the targeted countries in the long run. The AMG, MG, and CCEMG results support the CS-ARDL findings. This shows that these governments should incorporate trade and education for women into their labor strategies. The key contribution of this study is in the field of labor market opportunity for female employment and shows the relative importance of education in determining female employment in South Asia.
Journal Article
Does child care availability play a role in maternal employment and children’s development? Evidence from Italy
This paper investigates the effects of public child care availability in Italy in mothers’ working status and children’s scholastic achievements. We use a newly available dataset containing individual standardized test scores of pupils attending the second grade of primary school in 2009–2010 in conjunction with data on public child care availability. Our estimates indicate a positive and significant effects of child care availability on both mothers’ working status and children’s Language test scores. We find that a percentage change in public child care coverage increases mothers’ probability to work by 1.3 percentage points and children’s Language test scores by 0.85 percent of one standard deviation; we do not find any effect on Math test scores. Moreover, the impact of a percentage change in public child care on mothers’ employment and children’s Language test scores is greater in provinces where child care availability is more limited.
Journal Article