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Foeniculum vulgare Mill commonly called fennel has been used in traditional medicine for a wide range of ailments related to digestive, endocrine, reproductive, and respiratory systems. Additionally, it is also used as a galactagogue agent for lactating mothers. The review aims to gather the fragmented information available in the literature regarding morphology, ethnomedicinal applications, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology of Foeniculum vulgare. It also compiles available scientific evidence for the ethnobotanical claims and to identify gaps required to be filled by future research. Findings based on their traditional uses and scientific evaluation indicates that Foeniculum vulgare remains to be the most widely used herbal plant. It has been used for more than forty types of disorders. Phytochemical studies have shown the presence of numerous valuable compounds, such as volatile compounds, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, fatty acids, and amino acids. Compiled data indicate their efficacy in several in vitro and in vivo pharmacological properties such as antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, antinociceptive, antipyretic, antispasmodic, antithrombotic, apoptotic, cardiovascular, chemomodulatory, antitumor, hepatoprotective, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, and memory enhancing property. Foeniculum vulgare has emerged as a good source of traditional medicine and it provides a noteworthy basis in pharmaceutical biology for the development/formulation of new drugs and future clinical uses.

Foeniculum vulgare L. (fennel), a member of the Apiaceae family, is a widely cultivated spice plant valued for its aromatic fruits and medicinal properties. This study aimed to evaluate the agro-morphological characteristics, yield potential, essential oil content and components, as well as elemental profiles of twenty genetically diverse fennel genotypes under identical agro-climatic conditions during the 2019 and 2020 growing seasons. Significant phenotypic variation was observed among the genotypes, with fruit yields ranging from 183.78 to 1682.77 kg/ha. Essential oil content varied between 1.80% and 4.11%, with Ames23130 and Ames30693 genotypes exhibiting the highest oil yields. Also, essential oil yield values were found between 3.92 and 55.74 L/ha, and Ames23130 genotype had the highest essential oil yield. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis identified 17 essential oil components, five of which trans-anethole (54.14–90.44%), estragole (2.38–28.75%), p-cymene (0.10-39.63%), limonene (0.13–7.94%), and α-fenchone (0.47–8.44%) were classified as major components. Among these, trans-anethole consistently dominated across all genotypes and both years, reflecting a stable chemotypic profile. Elemental analysis performed via inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) revealed that fennel fruits are rich in potassium, calcium and magnesium, with negligible levels of toxic metals such as cadmium and lead, affirming the samples’ nutritional quality and food safety. Cluster analysis grouped the genotypes based on integrated yield, phytochemical, and mineral traits, with Ames23130 emerging as the most promising genotype for both fruit and essential oil production. Additionally, PI649471 and NSL6409 stood out for their distinct essential oil profiles, while PI414189 was notable for its superior potassium accumulation. The PCA analysis showed 42.9% of total variation, and correlation analysis revealed that highly significant positive correlation was found between Mn and Ca mineral contents with r  = 0.749** These findings provide valuable insights for fennel breeding programs and support the selection of elite genotypes for both commercial cultivation and functional food applications.

Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill) is a valuable medicinal plant from the Apiaceae family, cultivated for its essential oil, seeds, and leaves, which are used in the pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetics industries. This study tested the hypothesis that plant growth regulators (PGRs) positively modulate the morphological, physiological, and phytochemical properties of fennel. To test this hypothesis, a factorial experiment was carried out with foliar applications of four plant growth regulators, including salicylic acid (SA: 1 and 2 mM), gibberellic acid (GA: 0.25 and 0.5 mM), gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA: 5 and 10 mM), and sodium nitroprusside (SNP: 1.25 and 2.5 mM). The results showed that SNP2.5 and GA0.5 treatments achieved the greatest improvement in growth and morphological traits. For the SNP2.5 treatment, morphological traits exhibited percentage changes ranging from 36.5 to 198.6%. SNP2.5 and SA2 treatments resulted in the highest values for physiological traits. The SNP2.5 treatment caused significant increases in flavonoid and phenolic contents, DPPH radical scavenging activity, and chlorophyll and carotenoid levels, with increases ranging from about 39% to 231% compared to the control. Meanwhile, SA (1 and 2 mM) and GA0.25 had superior effects on phytochemical traits, including essential oil yield and secondary metabolites. GABA10 also positively influenced all traits, though to a lesser extent than other treatments. Control plants consistently exhibited the lowest values across all traits. Metabolite analysis using GC-MS identified a total of 150 compounds, among which 41 showed significant differences among treatments. Notably, six major metabolites accounted for about 70% of the total metabolite content, including apiol (0.742–1.299), camphene hydrate (0.407–0.708), cis-anethole (0.328–0.975), estragole (0.916–1.059), phenyl acetate (5.005–9.705), and limonene (3.902–1.647) respectively for SA1 and SA2. Among these, cis-anethole (40–75%) and limonene (6.5–19%) were identified as the predominant components in the essential oil of the leaves. These findings suggest that certain plant growth regulators, especially SNP and SA, can be used as effective agricultural tools for improving the growth and phytochemical quality of fennel.

The increasing trend of salinization of agricultural lands represents a great threat to the growth of major crops. Hence, shedding light on the salt-tolerance capabilities of three environment-resilient medicinal species from the Apiaceae, i.e. fennel, ajwain, and anise as alternative crops was aimed at. Two genotypes from each of the three medicinal species were exposed to a wide range of water salinities, including 0 (control), 40, 80, and 120 mM NaCl and comparative changes in the leaf photosynthetic pigments, osmoticums, antioxidative enzymes, ionic homeostasis, essential oil, and plant growth were assessed. Even though certain genotype- and species-specificities were observed in the salt-induced modifications of these physiological attributes, decreasing in growth, plant dry mass, root volume, relative water content, and K + concentration concomitant to increasing in the catalase, ascorbate peroxidase, and guaiacol peroxidase activities, malondialdehyde, total soluble carbohydrates, proline and Na + concentrations, Na + /K + , and essential oil were common to the examined species and genotypes. The K + concentration of the stressed plants of anise genotypes was smaller, giving shape to a greater Na + /K + than those of fennel and ajwain. Unlike anise, fennel and ajwain genotypes retained and/or increased the chlorophyll and carotenoids concentrations when exposed to 120 mM NaCl. The greater salt-induced increases in the catalase, ascorbate peroxidase, and guaiacol peroxidase activities along with the less-heightened Na + /K + were concomitant to the smaller depressions in the total plant dry mass and root volume of the fennel and ajwain genotypes, portraying these species more resilient to saline water, compared to anise.

This study investigated the effects of cobalt treatments on the growth, yield, and chemical composition of sweet fennel ( Foeniculum vulgare cv. Dulce) in both pot and field experiments conducted over two growing seasons. The experimental design was structured as a completely randomized block design. In the pot experiment, cobalt was applied at concentrations of 0.0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20 mg L⁻¹. For the field experiment, the concentrations tested were refined to 0.0, 4, 8, 12, 16, and 20 mg L⁻¹ based on preliminary results to better assess the impact on sweet fennel growth and yield. Vegetative growth, yield parameters, and chemical constituents were evaluated 60 and 120 days after sowing. The results indicated that a cobalt concentration of 16 mg L⁻¹ significantly enhanced plant growth, yield, and nutritional quality. Specifically, plant height, leaf number, fresh and dry weights, bulb dimensions, and total yield per feddan showed substantial increases compared to the control. Chemical analysis revealed improvements in macronutrients, micronutrients, total proteins, carbohydrates, soluble sugars, phenolic content, vitamins C and A, and oil content at this optimal cobalt level. However, higher concentrations (20 mg L⁻¹) led to a slight decline in some metrics, suggesting a potential toxicity threshold. The composition of essential oils also improved with cobalt treatment, with significant increases in key components such as α -pinene, camphene, and fenchone. These findings demonstrate that cobalt supplementation at 16 mg L⁻¹ can significantly enhance the growth, yield, and quality of sweet fennel, although excessive levels may have adverse effects. Graphical abstract

In this study, a comparative proteomic analysis was conducted on four agriculturally important genotypes of fennel ( Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) named Yazd, Tabriz, Varamin, and Karaj to identify effective proteins and mechanisms involved in self-incompatibility. Self-pollinated and open-pollinated seeds from each genotype were planted in separate lines. Then, three umbels of selected plants were enveloped for re-self-pollination, while the other umbels were pollinated by bees. All experiments, including quantification of total protein concentration and mass spectrometry analysis (LC–MS/MS), were carried out on the flower styles from self-compatible and self-incompatible plants of the studied populations. Additionally, the essential oil content of selected plants was measured to assess its correlation with pollination type (or self-compatibility) and genotypes. Results showed that, regardless of the plant genotype, self-incompatibility doubled the total protein content. The highest protein concentration was measured in the Karaj self-incompatible genotype, while the lowest was found in the Yazd self-compatible genotype. Proteomic analysis revealed genotype-specific upregulation of proteins involved in essential oil biosynthesis in fennel, particularly in response to self-incompatibility (SI). While SI induced significant proteomic changes linked to metabolic pathways, the impact on essential oil content varied across genotypes, highlighting the complex interplay of genetic, enzymatic, and environmental factors in essential oil production. The results also indicated that the response of the fennel plant to self-compatibility is strongly correlated to the plant's genotype. According to the results, although plant genotype specifically affects the plant's protein expression profile under self-incompatibility conditions, proteins involved in the production of energy and metabolites necessary for fertilization and compatible crosses, as well as proteins involved in pollen tube formation and growth, are considered key proteins involved in self-compatibility in all studied genotypes. The results proposed a sporophytic mechanism for self-incompatibility in fennel.

Fennel ( Foeniculum vulgare Mill. or Anethum foeniculum ) stands out as a versatile herb whose cultivation spans across various regions worldwide, thanks to its adaptability to diverse climatic conditions. Its economic importance is mainly due to its numerous pharmaceutical properties and its widespread use in culinary applications. In this review, we first reviewed the chemical composition of this species, stressing the importance of two volatile compounds: t-anethole and estragole. The few cytological and genetic information available in the scientific literature were summarized. Regarding this latter aspect, we pointed out the almost complete absence of classical genetic studies, the lack of a chromosome-level reference genome, and the shortage of adequate transcriptomic studies. We also reviewed the main agronomic practices, with particular emphasis on breeding schemes aimed at the production of F1 hybrids and synthetic varieties. The few available studies on biotic and abiotic stresses were discussed too. Subsequently, we summarized the main studies on genetic diversity conducted in fennel and the available germplasm collections. Finally, we outlined an overview of the main in vitro regeneration techniques successfully applied in this species.

Essential oils of the fruits of three organically grown cultivars of Egyptian fennel (Foeniculum vulgare var. azoricum, Foeniculum vulgare var. dulce and Foeniculum vulgare var. vulgare) were examined for their chemical constituents, antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis of the essential oils revealed the presence of 18 major monoterpenoids in all three cultivars but their percentage in each oil were greatly different. trans-Anethole, estragole, fenchone and limonene were highly abundant in all of the examined oils. Antioxidant activities of the essential oils were evaluated using the DPPH radical scavenging, lipid peroxidation and metal chelating assays. Essential oils from the azoricum and dulce cultivars were more effective antioxidants than that from the vulgare cultivar. Antimicrobial activities of each oil were measured against two species of fungi, two species of Gram negative and two species of Gram positive bacteria. All three cultivars showed similar antimicrobial activity.

Non-specific lipid transfer proteins (nsLTPs) are cationic proteins involved in intracellular lipid shuttling in growth and reproduction, as well as in defense against pathogenic microbes. Even though the primary and spatial structures of some nsLTPs from different plants indicate their similar features, they exhibit distinct lipid-binding specificities signifying their various biological roles that dictate further structural study. The present study determined the complete amino acid sequence, in silico 3D structure modeling, and the antiproliferative activity of nsLTP1 from fennel ( Foeniculum vulgare ) seeds. Fennel is a member of the family Umbelliferae (Apiaceae) native to southern Europe and the Mediterranean region. It is used as a spice medicine and fresh vegetable. Fennel nsLTP1 was purified using the combination of gel filtration and reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). Its homogeneity was determined by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry. The purified nsLTP1 was treated with 4-vinyl pyridine, and the modified protein was then digested with trypsin. The complete amino acid sequence of nsLTP1 established by intact protein sequence up to 28 residues, overlapping tryptic peptides, and cyanogen bromide (CNBr) peptides. Hence, it is confirmed that fennel nsLTP1 is a 9433 Da single polypeptide chain consisting of 91 amino acids with eight conserved cysteines. Moreover, the 3D structure is predicted to have four α-helices interlinked by three loops and a long C-terminal tail. The lipid-binding property of fennel nsLTP1 is examined in vitro using fluorescent 2-p-toluidinonaphthalene-6-sulfonate (TNS) and validated using a molecular docking study with AutoDock Vina. Both of the binding studies confirmed the order of binding efficiency among the four studied fatty acids linoleic acid > linolenic acid > Stearic acid > Palmitic acid. A preliminary screening of fennel nsLTP1 suppressed the growth of MCF-7 human breast cancer cells in a dose-dependent manner with an IC 50 value of 6.98 µM after 48 h treatment.

In this study, odor components were analyzed using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and solid-phase microextraction (SPME), and odor-active compounds (OACs) were identified using GC-olfactometry (GC-O). Among the volatile compounds identified through GC-O, p-anisaldehyde, limonene, estragole, anethole, and trans-anethole elicit the fennel odor. In particular, trans-anethole showed the highest odor intensity and content. Changes in body weight during the experimental period showed decreasing values of fennel essential oil (FEO)-inhaled groups, with both body fat and visceral fat showing decreased levels. An improvement in the body’s lipid metabolism was observed, as indicated by the increased levels of cholesterol and triglycerides and decreased levels of insulin in the FEO-inhaled groups compared to group H. Furthermore, the reduction in systolic blood pressure and pulse through the inhalation of FEO was confirmed. Our results indicated that FEO inhalation affected certain lipid metabolisms and cardiovascular health, which are obesity-related dysfunction indicators. Accordingly, this study can provide basic research data for further research as to protective applications of FEO, as well as their volatile profiles.