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The ability to intercept uncooperative targets is key to many diverse flight behaviors, from courtship to predation. Previous research has looked for simple geometric rules describing the attack trajectories of animals, but the underlying feedback laws have remained obscure. Here, we use GPS loggers and onboard video cameras to study peregrine falcons, Falco peregrinus, attacking stationary targets, maneuvering targets, and live prey. We show that the terminal attack trajectories of peregrines are not described by any simple geometric rule as previously claimed, and instead use system identification techniques to fit a phenomenological model of the dynamical system generating the observed trajectories. We find that these trajectories are best—and exceedingly well—modeled by the proportional navigation (PN) guidance law used by most guided missiles. Under this guidance law, turning is commanded at a rate proportional to the angular rate of the line-of-sight between the attacker and its target, with a constant of proportionality (i.e., feedback gain) called the navigation constant (N). Whereas most guided missiles use navigation constants falling on the interval 3 ≤ N ≤ 5, peregrine attack trajectories are best fitted by lower navigation constants (median N < 3). This lower feedback gain is appropriate at the lower flight speed of a biological system, given its presumably higher error and longer delay. This same guidance law could find use in small visually guided drones designed to remove other drones from protected airspace.

The prosperity and well-being of human societies relies on healthy ecosystems and the services they provide. However, the biodiversity crisis is undermining ecosystems services and functions. Vultures are among the most imperiled taxonomic groups on Earth, yet they have a fundamental ecosystem function. These obligate scavengers rapidly consume large amounts of carrion and human waste, a service that may aid in both disease prevention and control of mammalian scavengers, including feral dogs, which in turn threaten humans. We combined information about the distribution of all 15 vulture species found in Europe, Asia, and Africa with their threats and used detailed expert knowledge on threat intensity to prioritize critical areas for conserving vultures in Africa and Eurasia. Threats we identified included poisoning, mortality due to collision with wind energy infrastructures, and other anthropogenic activities related to human land use and influence. Areas important for vulture conservation were concentrated in southern and eastern Africa, South Asia, and the Iberian Peninsula, and over 80% of these areas were unprotected. Some vulture species required larger areas for protection than others. Finally, countries that had the largest share of all identified important priority areas for vulture conservation were those with the largest expenditures related to rabies burden (e.g., India, China, and Myanmar). Vulture populations have declined markedly in most of these countries. Restoring healthy vulture populations through targeted actions in the priority areas we identified may help restore the ecosystem services vultures provide, including sanitation and potentially prevention of diseases, such as rabies, a heavy burden afflicting fragile societies. Our findings may guide stakeholders to prioritize actions where they are needed most in order to achieve international goals for biodiversity conservation and sustainable development. La prosperidad y el bienestar de la sociedad humana dependen de ecosistemas sanos y de los servicios ambientales que éstosproporcionan. Sin embargo, la crisisde biodiversidadestá afectandoa los servicios ambientales y sus funciones. Los buitres se encuentran entre los grupos taxonómicos con mayor amenaza sobre el planeta, a pesar de tener una función fundamental en los ecosistemas. Estos carroñeros obligados consumen rápidamente grandes cantidades de carroña y desechos humanos, un servicio que puede ayudar en la prevención de enfermedades y en el control de mamíferos carroñeros, incluyendo a los perros ferales, los cuales pueden ser un peligro para los humanos. Combinamos la información sobre la distribución de las 15 especies de buitres en Europa, Asia y África con las amenazas que presentan y usamos el conocimiento detallado de expertos sobre la intensidad de las amenazas para priorizar las áreas críticas para la conservación de buitres en África y en Eurasia. Las amenazas que identificamos incluyeron el envenenamiento, la mortalidad por colisiones con infraestructura eólica y otras actividades antropogénicas relacionadas con el uso de suelo y la influencia humana. Las áreas importantes para la conservación de buitres estuvieron concentradas en el sur y el este de África, el sur de Asia y la Península Ibérica, y más del 80% de estas áreas no contaban con protección. Algunas especies de buitres requirieron áreas más grandes para su protección que otras especies. Finalmente, los países que tuvieron la mayor porción de todas las áreas prioritarias importantes e identificadas para la conservación de buitres también fueron aquellos con los mayores gastos relacionados con la carga de la rabia (por ejemplo, India, China y Myanmar). Las poblaciones de buitres han declinado marcadamente en la mayoría de estos países. La restauración de poblaciones sanas de buitres por medio de acciones enfocadas en las áreas prioritarias que identificamos puede ayudar a restaurar los servicios ambientales que proporcionan los buitres, incluyendo el saneamiento y la prevención potencial de enfermedades, como la rabia, una carga pesada que aflige a las sociedades frágiles. Nuestros resultados pueden guiar a los interesados hacia la priorización de acciones en donde más se necesitan para poder alcanzar los objetivos internacionales para la conservación de la biodiversidad y el desarrollo sustentable. 人类社会的繁荣昌盛依赖于健康的生态系统及其所提供的服务。然而，生物多祥性危机芷在破坏生态系 统的服务和功能。秃鹰是地球上最濒危的类群之一，而它们却能提供基础的生态系统功能。它们作为专性食腐 动物可以快速消耗大量腐肉及人类废弃物，提供的生态系统服务有助于预防疾病，以及控制哺乳类食腐动物，如 会对人类造成威胁的野狗。我们将欧洲、亚洲和非洲的全部+ 五种秃鹰的分布信息与其面临的威胁相结合，利 用详细的关于威胁强度的专业知识, 确定了非洲及欧亚关键的秃鹰保护优先地区。秃鹰面临的威胁包括中毒、 撞击风能设施导致的死亡，以及与人类土地利用和影响有关的其它人类活动。秃鹰的重点保护区域集中在非洲 南部和东部、南非和利比亚半岛，这些地区超过80%的土地没有得到保护。另外，秃鹰中某些物种相比之下需 要更大区域进行保护。我们还发现,秃鹰的重要优先保护区域占比最大的国家同时也是那呰在狂犬病上的支出 最高的国家(如印度、中国、缅甸)，而其中大多数国家的秃鹰种群数量已经明显下降。通过在我们确定的优先 保护区域采取有针对性的行动来恢复健康的秃鹰种群，可能有助于恢复秃鹰提供的生态系统服务，包括环境卫 生和预防潜在疾病，比如狂犬病这种沉重的社会负担。我们的研究成果可以指导利益相关者在需求最迫切的地 方优先采取行动，以实现生物多祥性保护和可持续发展的国际目标。

Since 2021, highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b virus has affected wild bird populations globally. Griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus), a species hitherto considered unexposed, experienced an HPAI H5N1 outbreak in 2022 in southern Europe, leading to moderate mortality and reduced breeding success. The integration of virological, serologic, phylogenetic, and ecologic data revealed a short yet intense viral circulation and a probable common source of infection. The dissemination across Spain and France was likely caused by frequent interpopulation movements of birds. This integrated overview of the 2022 HPAI outbreak in vultures provides novel insights into the role of large-scale movements of wild birds in the spread of such disease. Understanding the epidemiologic dynamics of HPAI H5N1 in these scavenger species is crucial because the birds play vital roles in ecosystem functioning. Their susceptibility to this virus highlights potential broader ecologic effects of the ongoing outbreaks.

Background The order Accipitriformes comprises the largest group of birds of prey with 260 species in four families. So far, 21 haemosporidian parasite species have been described from or reported to occur in accipitriform birds. Only five of these parasite species have been characterized molecular genetically. The first part of this study involved molecular genetic screening of accipitriform raptors from Austria and Bosnia-Herzegovina and the first chromogenic in situ hybridization approach targeting parasites in this host group. The aim of the second part of this study was to summarize the CytB sequence data of haemosporidian parasites from accipitriform raptors and to visualize the geographic and host distribution of the lineages. Methods Blood and tissue samples of 183 accipitriform raptors from Austria and Bosnia-Herzegovina were screened for Plasmodium , Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon parasites by nested PCR, and tissue samples of 23 PCR-positive birds were subjected to chromogenic in situ hybridization using genus-specific probes targeting the parasites’ 18S rRNAs. All published CytB sequence data from accipitriform raptors were analysed, phylogenetic trees were calculated, and DNA haplotype network analyses were performed with sequences from clades featuring multiple lineages detected in this host group. Results Of the 183 raptors from Austria and Bosnia-Herzegovina screened by PCR and sequencing, 80 individuals (44%) were infected with haemosporidian parasites. Among the 39 CytB lineages detected, 18 were found for the first time in the present study. The chromogenic in situ hybridization revealed exo-erythrocytic tissue stages of Leucocytozoon parasites belonging to the Leucocytozoon toddi species group in the kidneys of 14 infected birds. The total number of CytB lineages recorded in accipitriform birds worldwide was 57 for Leucocytozoon , 25 for Plasmodium , and 21 for Haemoproteus . Conclusion The analysis of the DNA haplotype networks allowed identifying numerous distinct groups of lineages, which have not yet been linked to morphospecies, and many of them likely belong to yet undescribed parasite species. Tissue stages of Leucocytozoon parasites developing in accipitriform raptors were discovered and described. The majority of Leucocytozoon and Haemoproteus lineages are specific to this host group, but most Plasmodium lineages were found in birds of other orders. This might indicate local transmission from birds kept at the same facilities (raptor rescue centres and zoos), likely resulting in abortive infections. To clarify the taxonomic and systematic problems, combined morphological and molecular genetic analyses on a wider range of accipitriform host species are needed.

In the Falconidae, the genus Falco comprises species of large birds of prey with wide distribution worldwide. However, the European lanner falcon Falco biarmicus feldeggii is rapidly heading for global extinction following a dramatic decline caused by anthropogenic interference. Conservation projects are currently underway with the main purpose of increasing its population size in the Mediterranean basin through captive breeding and release of birds into the wild. To support the projects, and strengthen the legitimacy of conservation efforts consistently with the Evolutionary Significant Unit concept, we explored the possibility of characterising the gene pool of the European lanner and reliably distinguishing it from other falcon taxa inhabiting the Mediterranean area, which show morphological and genetic similarities. To address the issue, we examined genetic variability at the nuclear level through the analysis of 12 neutral Short Tandem Repeat loci, and, for the first time in these taxa, two single-copy functional genes, coding for the brain-derived neurotrophic factor precursor and the oocyte maturation factor, respectively. The second exon of the major histocompatibility complex class II B gene was also investigated. Additionally, to frame our data with previously published data, we assess variation at the mitochondrial level by sequencing portions of the cytochrome b , 12S rRNA gene, and the control region. Our results showed that the European lanner is highly distinct from other falcon taxa, as revealed by nuclear, but not by mitochondrial DNA. We discuss our findings focusing on their implications for the preservation of this highly endangered European bird, and highlighted the critical role of genetic information in planning and monitoring concrete interventions.

The population of free-living red kites ( Milvus milvus [Linnaeus 1758]) in England and Wales has increased since 1989 as a consequence of species reintroduction. The red kite, however, remains of conservation concern, with populations in Europe considered to be in decline. Plans to translocate birds from England to Spain have been initiated, prompting consideration of the disease risks associated with the translocation of parasites which may be present within the source population. This study utilized published morphological markers and molecular polymerase chain reaction techniques to identify archived adult helminth parasites extracted from the gastrointestinal tract of red kites found dead and examined post-mortem in England and Wales between 2014 and 2021. Helminths of the genus Porrocaecum (Railliet and Harry 1912 ) were identified in 22 out of the 23 helminth-infected red kites from a wide geographical distribution, suggesting that this parasite is common in the red kite population in England and Wales. Molecular characterization using internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS-2) and 28S rDNA sequences identified Porrocaecum moraveci (Gu et al. 2023), the first report of this recently described species in the UK. Ascaridia (Dujardi 1845) sp., Capillaria (Zeder 1800) sp., and Syngamus trachea (Montagu 1811) ova were also detected during the post-mortem examinations (PMEs) and are known to be present within European red kite populations, suggesting that these parasites do not represent a novel disease risk to the destination population in Spain. Previous reports of Porrocaecum angusticolle (Molin, 1860) in British and other European red kite populations should now be revisited to confirm identity and assess the risk of parasite translocation.

Morbidity studies complement the understanding of hazards to raptors by identifying natural or anthropogenic factors. Descriptive epidemiological studies of wildlife have become an important source of information about hazards to wildlife populations. On the other hand, data referenced to the overall wild population could provide a more accurate assessment of the potential impact of the morbidity/mortality causes in populations of wild birds. The present study described the morbidity causes of hospitalized wild raptors and their incidence in the wild populations, through a long term retrospective study conducted at a wildlife rehabilitation centre of Catalonia (1995-2007). Importantly, Seasonal Cumulative Incidences (SCI) were calculated considering estimations of the wild population in the region and trend analyses were applied among the different years. A total of 7021 birds were analysed: 7 species of Strigiformes (n = 3521) and 23 of Falconiformes (n = 3500). The main causes of morbidity were trauma (49.5%), mostly in the Falconiformes, and orphaned/young birds (32.2%) mainly in the Strigiformes. During wintering periods, the largest morbidity incidence was observed in Accipiter gentillis due to gunshot wounds and in Tyto alba due to vehicle trauma. Within the breeding season, Falco tinnunculus (orphaned/young category) and Bubo bubo (electrocution and metabolic disorders) represented the most affected species. Cases due to orphaned/young, infectious/parasitic diseases, electrocution and unknown trauma tended to increase among years. By contrast, cases by undetermined cause, vehicle trauma and captivity decreased throughout the study period. Interestingly, gunshot injuries remained constant during the study period. Frequencies of morbidity causes calculated as the proportion of each cause referred to the total number of admitted cases, allowed a qualitative assessment of hazards for the studied populations. However, cumulative incidences based on estimated wild raptor population provided a more accurate approach to the potential ecological impact of the morbidity causes in the wild populations.

In 1989, the Nature Conservancy Council and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds commenced reintroduction of the red kite (Milvus milvus) according to International Union for Conservation of Nature criteria. Following 22 years of intensive effort, the red kite reintroduction programme has been a success with an estimated 1000 pairs now breeding in England. Post-release health surveillance is ongoing and has been achieved through radio-tracking, monitoring breeding at nest sites and pathological examinations of any red kites found dead. Tail-mounted radio transmitters were fitted from 1989 with harness-mounted radio transmitters being preferentially used since 2000. Since 2000, 180 individuals have been recovered for postmortem examination. Eighteen of these birds had previously had a harness-mounted radio transmitter fitted and four of these (22 per cent) had moderate to severe lesions associated with the presence of the harness and radio transmitter including chronic necrogranulomatous inflammation, deep muscular exposure and distorted muscular conformation. Failure to breed was also reported in two of these individuals over the preceding year(s), although it is not known whether the presence of the harness contributed to this failure. Duration of deployment may have been a significant factor in the formation of these lesions as those with lesions (n=4) had a statistically significant (P=0.009) longer duration of deployment compared to those without lesions (n=14). No lesions were reported in those red kites fitted with tail-transmitters.

Background The family Toxocaridae is a group of zooparasitic nematodes of veterinary, medical and economic significance. However, the evolutionary relationship of Porrocaecum and Toxocara , both genera currently classified in Toxocaridae, and the monophyly of the Toxocaridae remain under debate. Moreover, the validity of the subgenus Laymanicaecum in the genus Porrocaecum is open to question. Due to the scarcity of an available genetic database, molecular identification of Porrocaecum nematodes is still in its infancy. Methods A number of Porrocaecum nematodes collected from the Eurasian marsh harrier Circus aeruginosus (Linnaeus) (Falconiformes: Accipitridae) in the Czech Republic were identified using integrated morphological methods (light and scanning electron microscopy) and molecular techniques (sequencing and analyzing the nuclear 18S, 28S and ITS regions). The complete mitochondrial genomes of the collected nematode specimens and of Porrocaecum ( Laymanicaecum ) reticulatum (Linstow, 1899) were sequenced and annotated for the first time. Phylogenetic analyses of ascaridoid nematodes based on the amino acid sequences of 12 protein-coding genes of mitochondrial genomes were performed using maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference. Results A new species of Porrocaecum , named P. moraveci n. sp., is described based on the morphological and genetic evidence. The mitogenomes of P. moraveci n. sp. and P. reticulatum both contain 36 genes and are 14,517 and 14,210 bp in length, respectively. Comparative mitogenomics revealed that P. moraveci n. sp. represents the first known species with three non-coding regions and that P. reticulatum has the lowest overall A + T content in the mitogenomes of ascaridoid nematodes tested to date. Phylogenetic analyses showed the representatives of Toxocara clustered together with species of the family Ascarididae rather than with Porrocaecum and that P. moraveci n. sp. is a sister to P. reticulatum . Conclusions The characterization of the complete mitochondrial genomes of P. moraveci n. sp. and P. reticulatum is reported for the first time. Mitogenomic phylogeny analyses indicated that the family Toxocaridae is non-monophyletic and that the genera Porrocaecum and Toxocara do not have an affinity. The validity of the subgenus Laymanicaecum in Porrocaecum was also rejected. Our results suggest that: (i) Toxocaridae should be degraded to a subfamily of the Ascarididae that includes only the genus Toxocara ; and (ii) the subfamily Porrocaecinae should be resurrected to include only the genus Porrocaecum . The present study enriches the database of ascaridoid mitogenomes and provides a new insight into the systematics of the superfamily Ascaridoidea. Graphical Abstract