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Dynamic theories of family size preferences posit that they are not a fixed and stable goal but rather are akin to a moving target that changes within individuals over time. Nonetheless, in high-fertility contexts, changes in family size preferences tend to be attributed to low construct validity and measurement error instead of genuine revisions in preferences. To address the appropriateness of this incongruity, the present study examines evidence for the sequential model of fertility among a sample of young Malawian women living in a context of transitioning fertility. Using eight waves of closely spaced data and fixed-effects models, we find that these women frequently change their reported family size preferences and that these changes are often associated with changes in their relationship and reproductive circumstances. The predictability of change gives credence to the argument that ideal family size is a meaningful construct, even in this higher-fertility setting. Changes are not equally predictable across all women, however, and gamma regression results demonstrate that women for whom reproduction is a more distant goal change their fertility preferences in less-predictable ways.

Employing data from the China rural–urban mobility survey conducted in 2010, this study investigates the influence of family demographic characteristics on the income, life satisfaction, and potential for rural–urban mobility at the rural household level of two provinces of China: Shaanxi and Henan. A larger labor force in a rural household was found to reduce a family’s ability or inclination to move to a city. The findings reveal that family size negatively affects the average income per family member and reduces the marginal income of the labor force and that minor children can improve the life satisfaction of family members. We conclude that a larger family size does not translate to more benefits for a rural household. Family size preference is found to be a reflection of parents’ concerns about elderly care and is deemed to be unfavorable for urbanization in P. R. China.

In view of an unusual transition in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) fertility, periodic re-appraisal is necessary. Using an ecological design, data from Demographic and Health Surveys between 1990 and 2014 were analysed to investigate trends in completed family size (CFS), total fertility rate (TFR), family size preference (FSP), and contraceptive prevalence rate (CPR). The correlates of changes in fertility levels, FSP and CPR were explored. Results showed that CFS declined and was lowest in Southern and Western Africa. However, average CFS for Central African countries appeared virtually the same over the period. Changes in TFR and FSP followed patterns similar to CFS. Western and Central region had very slow increase in CPR with many below 20% as at 2014. Eastern and Southern Africa had faster increase in CPR with some countries achieving almost 60%. Regression results showed that contraceptive prevalence (β= -1.96, p=0.027) and median age at first marriage (β= -0.23, p=0.06) were negatively related to TFR while employment (β= -21.7, p<0.001) was negatively related to FSP. In summary, fertility levels and family size preference declined while contraceptive use improved particularly in Southern and the Eastern Africa. Increased female labour force participation is another potential route to fertility decline in SSA. Compte tenu de la transition inhabituelle de la fécondité en Afrique subsaharienne (ASS), une réévaluation périodique est nécessaire. À l'aide d'un modèle écologique, les données des enquêtes démographiques et de santé menées entre 1990 et 2014 ont été analysées pour étudier les tendances de la taille de la famille achevée (TFA), du taux de fécondité total (TFT), du facteur de préférence de la taille de la famille (PTF) et du taux de prévalence de la contraception (TPC). Les corrélats des variations des niveaux de fécondité, de la PTF et de la TPC ont été explorés. Les résultats ont montré que le TFA avait diminué et était le plus faible en Afrique australe et occidentale. Cependant, la TFA moyenne des pays d'Afrique centrale a semblé pratiquement identique au cours de la période. Les modifications du TFT et de la TFA ont suivi des tendances similaires à celles du PTF. Les régions de l'Ouest et du Centre ont connu une très lente augmentation de la TPC, beaucoup marquant moins de 20% en 2014. L'Afrique de l'Est et du Sud ont connu une augmentation plus rapide de la TPC, certains pays atteignant près de 60%. Les résultats de la régression ont montré que la prévalence contraceptive (β = - 1,96, p = 0,027) et l'âge médian au premier mariage (β = -0,23, p = 0,06) étaient négativement corrélés au TFT alors que l'emploi (β = - 21,7, p <0,001) était en relation négative avec le PTF. En résumé, les niveaux de fécondité et la préférence pour la taille de la famille ont diminué alors que l'utilisation des contraceptifs s'est améliorée, en particulier en Afrique australe et orientale. L'augmentation de la participation des femmes à la population active est une autre voie potentielle vers le déclin de la fécondité en ASS.

Background Uganda’s fertility was almost unchanging until the year 2006 when some reductions became visible. Compared to age at first marriage and contraceptive use, age at sexual debut and family size preferences are rarely examined in studies of fertility decline. In this study, we analyzed the contribution of age at first marriage, age at first sex, family size preferences and contraceptive use to change in fertility in Uganda between 2006 and 2016. Methods Using data from the 2006 and 2016 Uganda Demographic and Health Survey (UDHS), we applied a nonlinear multivariate decomposition technique to quantify the contribution of age at first marriage, age at first sex, family size preference and contraceptive use to the change in fertility observed during the 2006–2016 period. Results The findings indicate that 37 and 63% of the change in fertility observed between 2006 and 2016 was respectively associated with changing characteristics and changing fertility behavior of the women. Changes in proportion of women by; age at first marriage, age at first sex, family size preferences and contraceptive use were respectively associated with 20.6, 10.5 and 8.4% and 8.2% of the change in fertility but only fertility behavior resulting from age at first sex was significantly related to the change in fertility with a contribution of 43.5%. Conclusions The study quantified the contribution of age at first marriage, age at first sex, family size preferences and contraceptive use to the change in fertility observed between 2006 and 2016. We highlight that of the four factors, only age at sexual debut made a significant contribution on the two components of the decomposition. There is need to address the low age at first sex, accessibility, demand for family planning services and youth-friendly family planning services to young unmarried women such that they can achieve their desired fertility. The contribution of other factors such as education attainment by women and place of residence and their relationship with changes in fertility calls for addressing if further reduction in fertility is to be realised.

Abstract It has been widely documented in patrilocal and strongly patrilineal settings in India that the presence and influence of mothers-in-law in the household may affect fertility decisions made by young couples. However, not much is known about how intra-family relationships per se influence choice of contraceptive method and timing of use. To understand patterns of family planning decision-making, we carried out short, open-ended interviews in rural Madhya Pradesh in 2005 with 60 mothers-in-law, 60 sons and 60 daughters-in-law from the same families. Mothers-in-law were found to have an important influence on family decisions pertaining to activities within the household. They were also likely to influence the number of sons their daughters-in-law had and the timing of their daughters-in-law being sterilised, but they did not seem to have the same authority or influence with regard to decisions on the use of reversible contraceptive methods, which were mainly being made by young couples themselves. The findings show the flexibility and transformability of intra-family interactions, even within a hierarchically-ordered kinship system that is often considered an obstacle to improving reproductive health and gender equity. Given the right information, and availability of and access to reversible methods, young couples in rural Madhya Pradesh are increasingly making contraceptive choices for themselves.

In view of an unusual transition in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) fertility, periodic re-appraisal is necessary. Using an ecological design, data from Demographic and Health Surveys between 1990 and 2014 were analysed to investigate trends in completed family size (CFS), total fertility rate (TFR), family size preference (FSP), and contraceptive prevalence rate (CPR). The correlates of changes in fertility levels, FSP and CPR were explored. Results showed that CFS declined and was lowest in Southern and Western Africa. However, average CFS for Central African countries appeared virtually the same over the period. Changes in TFR and FSP followed patterns similar to CFS. Western and Central region had very slow increase in CPR with many below 20% as at 2014. Eastern and Southern Africa had faster increase in CPR with some countries achieving almost 60%. Regression results showed that contraceptive prevalence (β= -1.96, p=0.027) and median age at first marriage (β= -0.23, p=0.06) were negatively related to TFR while employment (β= -21.7, p<0.001) was negatively related to FSP. In summary, fertility levels and family size preference declined while contraceptive use improved particularly in Southern and the Eastern Africa. Increased female labour force participation is another potential route to fertility decline in SSA. (Afr J Reprod Health 2018; 22[4]: 44-53) Compte tenu de la transition inhabituelle de la fécondité en Afrique subsaharienne (ASS), une réévaluation périodique est nécessaire. À l'aide d'un modèle écologique, les données des enquêtes démographiques et de santé menées entre 1990 et 2014 ont été analysées pour étudier les tendances de la taille de la famille achevée (TFA), du taux de fécondité total (TFT), du facteur de préférence de la taille de la famille (PTF) et du taux de prévalence de la contraception (TPC). Les corrélats des variations des niveaux de fécondité, de la PTF et de la TPC ont été explorés. Les résultats ont montré que le TFA avait diminué et était le plus faible en Afrique australe et occidentale. Cependant, la TFA moyenne des pays d'Afrique centrale a semblé pratiquement identique au cours de la période. Les modifications du TFT et de la TFA ont suivi des tendances similaires à celles du PTF. Les régions de l'Ouest et du Centre ont connu une très lente augmentation de la TPC, beaucoup marquant moins de 20% en 2014. L'Afrique de l'Est et du Sud ont connu une augmentation plus rapide de la TPC, certains pays atteignant près de 60%. Les résultats de la régression ont montré que la prévalence contraceptive (β = -1,96, p = 0,027) et l'âge médian au premier mariage (β = -0,23, p = 0,06) étaient négativement corrélés au TFT alors que l'emploi (β = -21,7, p <0,001) était en relation négative avec le PTF. En résumé, les niveaux de fécondité et la préférence pour la taille de la famille ont diminué alors que l'utilisation des contraceptifs s'est améliorée, en particulier en Afrique australe et orientale. L'augmentation de la participation des femmes à la population active est une autre voie potentielle vers le déclin de la fécondité en ASS. (Afr J Reprod Health 2018; 22[4]:44-53).

Positive Women: Voices and Choices was an advocacy-research project developed by the International Community of Women Living with HIV/AIDS to explore the impact of HIV/AIDS on women's sexual and reproductive lives, challenge the violation of their rights and advocate improvements in policy and services. The project in Zimbabwe, the first one in three countries, was carried out from 1998 to 2001. This article presents selected findings from the Zimbabwe research report. It shows that HIV-positive women were unaware they were at risk before an HIV diagnosis, and that gender norms and economic dependence on husbands/partners restricted women's ability to control their sexual and reproductive lives. Prejudices that HIV-positive women should not be sexually active or have children meant women did not disclose their status to health workers, making it difficult for their needs to be acknowledged or addressed. Condom use was considered inappropriate in marriage. Younger childless women wanted to become pregnant, often in spite of previous miscarriage and stillbirths. Women with several children wanted to avoid further pregnancies, and contraceptive and condom use increased markedly after HIV diagnosis, especially among those attending support groups. Safe abortion was almost entirely inaccessible, though technically the law would have permitted it. Better economic opportunities for women, and integrated pregnancy and delivery care, family planning, STI and HIV-related services are needed which take account of HIV-positive women's needs. Positive Women: Voices and Choices était un projet de recherche et de plaidoyer lancé par l'International Community of Women Living with HIV/AIDS pour étudier l'impact du VIH/SIDA sur la vie génésique des femmes, lutter contre la violation de leurs droits et préconiser l'amélioration des politiques et des services. L'article présente les conclusions d'un rapport de recherche au Zimbabwe, premier des trois pays où le projet a été mené de 1998 à 2001. Il montre que les femmes ignoraient qu'elles étaient à risque avant d'être diagnostiquées séropositives, et que les normes sexuelles et leur dépendance économique à l'égard de leurs partenaires restreignaient leur capacité à maı̂triser leur vie sexuelle. Les préjugés interdisant aux femmes séropositives d'avoir des rapports sexuels ou de devenir mères les obligeaient à cacher leur statut aux agents de santé qui ne pouvaient répondre à leurs besoins. L'utilisation de préservatifs était jugée inconvenante dans le mariage. Les femmes jeunes et sans enfants voulaient devenir mères, souvent malgré de précédentes fausses couches et des enfants mort-nés. Les femmes ayant plusieurs enfants souhaitaient éviter de nouvelles grossesses, et l'utilisation de contraceptifs et de préservatifs s'est élevée nettement après le diagnostic de séropositivité, particulièrement parmi celles qui fréquentaient des groupes de soutien. Néanmoins, les avortements médicalisés étaient presque inaccessibles, même si la loi aurait dû les autoriser. Il faut offrir aux femmes de meilleures possibilités économiques, des soins obstétriques intégrés, une planification familiale et des services de lutte contre les MST et le VIH qui tiennent compte des besoins des femmes séropositives. Positive Women: Voices and Choices (Mujeres positivas: voces y opciones) fue un proyecto de investigación y defensa y promoción pública realizado por la Comunidad Internacional de Mujeres Viviendo con VIH/SIDA, orientado a explorar el impacto del VIH/SIDA en las vidas sexuales y reproductivas de las mujeres, desafiar la violación de sus derechos, y promover mejores polı́ticas y servicios. En este artı́culo se presentan los resultados del los resultados del proyecto en Zimbabwe, el primero de tres paı́ses donde se llevó a cabo el proyecto entre 1998 y 2001. Muestra que las mujeres viviendo con VIH no sabı́an que estaban en una situación de riesgo antes de conocer su diagnóstico y que tenı́an limitado control sobre sus vidas sexuales y reproductivas debido a las normas de género y su dependencia económica. Debido a prejuicios en contra de la actividad sexual o el embarazo para mujeres viviendo con VIH, ellas no revelaban su condición a los trabajadores de salud, ası́ dificultando la atención a sus necesidades. Se consideraba inapropiado el uso del condón en el matrimonio. Las mujeres más jóvenes sin hijos querı́an embarazarse, a pesar de haber sufrido abortos espontáneos o nacidos muertos anteriores. Las mujeres con hijos querı́an prevenir más embarazos, y el uso anticonceptivo y del condón aumentó después de su diagnóstico con VIH, especialmente entre las mujeres que asistı́an a grupos de apoyo. El acceso al aborto en condiciones adecuadas era prácticamente inexistente, aunque técnicamente permitido por ley. Las mujeres viviendo con VIH necesitan mejores oportunidades económicas y servicios integrados de atención al embarazo y parto, ITS y VIH, y planificación familiar que toman en cuenta sus necesidades.

This paper examines the way in which concerns about HIV infection are affecting thinking in Zambia about preferred number of children. It draws on research on the impact of HIV/AIDS in peri-urban and rural households in 1995, based mainly on in-depth interviews with 65 of 300 people who were initially surveyed. In spite ofhigh levels of anxiety about AIDS in these communities, risk from HIV was not always associated with the act of conceiving children, nor did this association necessarily influence actual behaviour or family size preferences. In some cases, however, the threat of contracting HIV had led to a decision to have fewer children. Many also worried about leaving orphans for others to look after and the costs which mightbe incurred in taking over the care of orphans left by others. A related reason for limiting fertility was the hope that orphaned children would be better cared for ifthere were fewer of them. Greater access to contraceptives, and specifically to condoms, is an important element in supporting women's efforts to protect themselves, and men also need to be involved in strategies for mutual protection. In both communities, however, there was a shared sense of limited control, not just over fertility, but also over the wider economic and health environment. An understanding of the complexity of these factors is essential for intervention programmes intended to enhance women's reproductive rights and support their fertility choices so as to ensure greater protection against HIV/AIDS. Cet article examine comment en Zambie, la crainte de l'infection à VIH influe sur le nombre souhaité d'enfants. Il utilise la recherche sur l'impact du VIH/SIDA sur les ménages périur-bains et ruraux en 1995, fondée essentiellement sur des entretiens approfondis avec 65 des 302 personnes qui avaient fait initialement l'objet d'une enquête. Bien que redoutant le SIDA, ces communautés n'associaient pas toujours le risque du VIH avec l'acte de concevoir des enfants, pas plus que cette association n'influençait leur comportement réel ou les préférences en matière de taille de la famille. Beaucoup s'inquiétaient aussi de laisser des orphelins dont d'autres devraient s'occuper. Une raison de limiter la fécondité était l'espoir que des orphelins moins nombreux seraient mieux soignés. Un accès élargi aux contraceptifs, et concrètement aux préservatifs, est important pour soutenir les efforts de protection des femmes, et les hommes doivent aussi participer aux stratégies de protection mutuelle. Les deux communautés partageaient néanmoins un sentiment de maîtrise limitée de la fécondité, mais aussi de l'environnement économique et sanitaire plus large. Il est essentiel de comprendre la complexité de ces facteurs pour les programmes destinés à valoriser les droits des femmes en matière de reproduction et à soutenir leurs choix de fécondité afin d'assurer une plus grande protection contre le VIH/SIDA. En Zambia la preocupación por el VIH afecta las actitudes acerca del número de hijos preferido. El presente trabajo se refiere a investigaciones sobre el impacto del VIH/SIDA en los hogares rurales y de la periferia urbana en 1995, principalmente entrevistas de fondo con 65 de las 302 personas inicialmente encuestadas. A pesar de los altos niveles de ansiedad acerca del SIDA en estas comunidades, no siempre se asociaba el riesgo de VIH con el acto de concebir hijos, el comportamiento o las preferencias por familias de cierto tamaño. En algunos casos, el mieno de contraer el VIH había llevado a una decisión de tener menos hijos. Muchas personas estaban preocupadas por dejar huérfanos al cuidado de otros. Otra razón para limitar la fecundidad era la esperanza de que los niños huérfanos fueran mejor cuidados si eran menos. Mayor acceso a los anticonceptivos, específicamente los condones, es importante para la protección de las mujeres. Los hombres también deben involucrarse en las estrategias para la protección mutua. En ambas comunidades, el sentido compartido de control era limitado, no solamente con respecto a la fecundidad, sino también en relación al ambiente económico y de salud en general. Comprender la complejidad de estos factores es preciso para los programas de intervención que pretenden ampliar los derechos reproductivos de las mujeres y apoyar sus opciones en relación a la fecundidad con el fin de asegurarles mayor protección en contra del VIH-SIDA.

The share of household resources devoted to children is hard to identify because consumption is measured at the household level and goods can be shared. Using semiparametric restrictions on individual preferences within a collective model, we identify how total household resources are divided up among household members by observing how each family member's expenditures on a single private good like clothing vary with income and family size. Using data from Malawi we show how resources devoted to wives and children vary by family size and structure, and we find that standard poverty indices understate the incidence of child poverty.

Nigeria is characterized by deeply rooted traditional practices that often amplify gender bias. Despite this, there is limited research examining the relationship between cultural and family characteristics and parental sex preference in Nigeria. To address this gap, we investigated how cultural factors and family structure is associated with parental sex preferences in the country. This study utilized data from the 2018 Nigeria Demographic and Health Surveys (NDHS). Parental sex preference for children served as the outcome variable, while family structure and cultural background were the explanatory variables. Descriptive analyses, including frequencies, percentages, and cross-tabulations, were used to characterize the sample. Due to the unordered categorical nature of the outcome variable, a multinomial logistic regression model was employed to assess the impact of culture and family structure on parental sex preference. A higher proportion of women preferred more girls compared to men (15.64% vs 6.85%), while more men expressed a preference for boys than women (52.48% vs 26.2%). Men with more sons were significantly more likely (RRR = 1.48, 95% CI = 1.23-1.78) to prefer more boys over an equal number of boys and girls, compared to men with equal numbers of sons and daughters. Similarly, women with more sons were more likely (RRR = 1.60, 95% CI = 1.45-1.77) to prefer more boys rather than an equal number of boys and girls, compared to women with equal numbers of sons and daughters. These findings shed light for understanding gender dynamics and informing policies that promote gender equality and balanced family structures. Such policies are critical for enhancing family planning practices and advancing the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030. With only six years left to meet these targets, we urge all stakeholders to collaborate and intensify efforts to drive meaningful progress.