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Human fascioliasis infection sources are analysed for the first time in front of the new worldwide scenario of this disease. These infection sources include foods, water and combinations of both. Ingestion of freshwater wild plants is the main source, with watercress and secondarily other vegetables involved. The problem of vegetables sold in uncontrolled urban markets is discussed. Distinction between infection sources by freshwater cultivated plants, terrestrial wild plants, and terrestrial cultivated plants is made. The risks by traditional local dishes made from sylvatic plants and raw liver ingestion are considered. Drinking of contaminated water, beverages and juices, ingestion of dishes and soups and washing of vegetables, fruits, tubercles and kitchen utensils with contaminated water are increasingly involved. Three methods to assess infection sources are noted: detection of metacercariae attached to plants or floating in freshwater, anamnesis in individual patients, and questionnaire surveys in endemic areas. The infectivity of metacercariae is reviewed both under field conditions and experimentally under the effects of physicochemical agents. Individual and general preventive measures appear to be more complicated than those considered in the past. The high diversity of infection sources and their heterogeneity in different countries underlie the large epidemiological heterogeneity of human fascioliasis throughout.

Fasciola hepatica is a pathogenic trematode parasite of ruminants with a global distribution. Here, we briefly review the current epidemiology of bovine fasciolosis in Europe and discuss the progress made over the last decade in the diagnosis, impact on production and prediction of F. hepatica in cattle. Advances in diagnosis have led to significantly improved coprological and serological methods to detect presence of infection. Diagnostic test results have been correlated with intensity of infection and associated production losses, unravelling the impact on carcass weight and milk yield in modern cattle production systems. The economic impact of fasciolosis may, however, go beyond the direct impacts on production as evidence shows that F. hepatica can modulate the immune response to some co-infections. Control of bovine fasciolosis remains hampered by the limitations of the currently available flukicidal drugs: few drugs are available to treat dairy cows, many have low efficacies against juvenile stages of F. hepatica and there is evidence for the development of drug resistance. This makes research into the prediction of risk periods, and thus the optimum application of available drugs more pertinent. In this field, the recent research focus has been on understanding spatial risk and delivering region-specific spatial distribution maps. Further advances in epidemiological and economic research on bovine fasciolosis are expected to deliver farm-specific economic assessments of disease impact, to leverage non-chemotherapeutic management options and to enhance a more targeted use of anthelmintics.

The Northern Bolivian Altiplano is the fascioliasis endemic area where the highest prevalences and intensities in humans have been recorded. In this hyperendemic area of human fascioliasis, the disease is caused only by Fasciola hepatica and transmitted by Galba truncatula , the sole lymnaeid species present in the area. When analysing the link between global warning and the recently reported geographical spread of lymnaeid populations to out-border localities, a marked heterogeneous climatic change was found throughout the endemic area. The aim of the present study was to analyse the physiographical heterogeneity of the fascioliasis hyperendemic area in the Northern Bolivian Altiplano, in order to assess its repercussions in the implementation of a One Health action. We applied multivariate linear mixed models to analyse the influence of a number of physiographical features on the long-term variation of climate and of the risk of transmission. Despite its apparent physiographic homogeneity, the findings of this study revealed markedly heterogeneous climate characteristics throughout the endemic area. This irregular pattern is influenced by physiographical features such as altitude, inner hills, closeness to Lake Titicaca, and El Niño–Southern Oscillation. This is the broadest study ever performed in a human fascioliasis endemic area about the influence of physiography on climate. It highlights the importance of considering physiographical features, an aspect usually not considered in studies dealing with the influences of climate and climate change on human and animal fascioliasis. Moreover, it shows that an endemic area may climatically evolve differently in its various inner zones and emphasizes the need for continuous monitoring to assess whether control measures should be modified accordingly.

Fasciolosis is a zoonosis that limits the productivity of ruminants worldwide, but there is a lack of information on its occurrence in Burundi. Therefore, this study aimed to fill the information gap by determining the prevalence and risk factors associated with bovine fasciolosis in the Imbo Region of Burundi. Two prevalence studies were conducted in parallel in the five communes of the five provinces in the Imbo region. In the first study, a total of 426 fecal samples were collected from randomly selected cattle farms and microscopically examined to determine Fasciola egg burden. Survey data on cattle husbandry were collected from owners of these cattle and analyzed to determine the risk factors for bovine fasciolosis. In the second study, 467 cattle were randomly selected in abattoirs and their livers were examined postmortem to determine liver fluke burdens. Data were entered separately into Microsoft Excel and analyzed using R software. The overall prevalence of bovine fasciolosis was 47.7% (42.9–52.4, 95% CI) for microscopic examination and 33.2% (28.9–37.5, 95% CI) for postmortem examinations. The majority of positive cattle (60.6%) had light intensity infections as determined by eggs per gram of feces (epg). Postmortem examinations corroborated these results and indicated that 80% of cattle had light intensity infections. Chi-square analysis showed a statistical association with the presence of bovine fasciolosis and the age, sex, and origin of cattle and the practices of cattle owners ( P  < 0.05).

Fasciolosis is a parasitic disease caused by liver flukes of the genus Fasciola, predominantly Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola gigantica. This zoonotic disease significantly impacts both livestock and human populations, particularly in areas with extensive agriculture and poor sanitation. Ethiopia, one of Africa's leading sheep and goats producers, is highly affected by fasciolosis. However, despite its economic and public health importance, there is a lack of comprehensive and up-to-date evidence on the prevalence and risk factors of small ruminant (sheep and goats) fasciolosis. Therefore, the objective of this systematic review and meta-analysis (SRMA) is to estimate pooled prevalence and identify risk factors of fasciolosis among small ruminants in Ethiopia. This SRMA was conducted based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. A comprehensive systematic review was performed across five electronic databases (Google Scholar, Embase, PubMed, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect), with all database searches and registers inquiries finalized on November 26, 2024. A random-effect model was used to determine the pooled prevalence of fasciolosis in sheep and goats. Heterogeneity was assessed, and the source of variation was analyzed using subgroup, sensitivity analysis and meta-regression. Publication bias assessment and sensitivity analysis were also performed to ensure the robustness of the review. Funnel plots and Egger's asymmetry tests were used to investigate publication bias. A total of 33 studies containing 9,578 small ruminants were included in the meta-analysis. The overall pooled prevalence of fasciolosis was 32.25% (95% CI: 25.97-38.86%) with substantially high between-study heterogeneity (inconsistency index (I2)) = 97.3%, p < 0.01). Among the variables analyzed for heterogeneity, species, publication years, season of data collection, and regions of the study were significant predictors of heterogeneity The sub-group analysis showed that the prevalence of fasciolosis among sheep and goats was 37.18% (95% CI; 31.06-43.51%) and 12.76% (95% CI; 4.06-25.19%), respectively. According to the region-based subgroup analysis, studies taken from Amhara region had the highest prevalence of fasciolosis among small ruminants (43.99% (95% CI: 31.83-56.52%)). This study highlights fasciolosis as a significant threat to Ethiopian small ruminants. Policymakers and veterinarians should prioritize evidence-based control programs in regions with high disease burden, through seasonal deworming, pasture rotation to disrupt snail ecology, and improved veterinary access in underserved areas.

Fascioliasis is a globally distributed, parasitic zoonosis, caused by Fasciola hepatica and F . gigantica . A comprehensive overview of the epidemiology of human fascioliasis in Africa is missing up to now. Therefore, our objective was to conduct a systematic review aiming to summarize recent knowledge on the distribution, prevalence, and risk factors of human fascioliasis in Africa. A key word search was performed in PubMed, Web of Science and Africa Wide, to gather relevant literature, published between the 1st of January 2000 and 31st of December 2020. A total of 472 records were initially retrieved, with 40 full text articles retained for the qualitative synthesis. Human fascioliasis was reported in 12 African countries, namely Algeria, Angola, Cape Verde, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Morocco, Nigeria, Senegal, South-Africa, Tanzania and Tunisia. The majority of the studies was conducted in Egypt. A total of 28 records were population surveys. Coproscopy was the most commonly used tool for fascioliasis diagnosis in these surveys. Gender (being female), consumption of raw vegetables/seeds, age, owning livestock, and use of unsafe drinking water sources, were identified as risk factors in 7 studies. Furthermore, 43 case reports were retrieved, described in 12 studies. Eosinophilia was present in 39 of these cases, while 11 had positive coproscopy results. Eight cases described having eaten raw wild vegetables. Overall, the low number and quality of records retrieved indicates that human fascioliasis remains a truly neglected disease in Africa, and more epidemiological studies are urgently needed to both establish the actual distribution as well as risk factors on the continent.

Fasciolosis, a neglected tropical disease caused by Fasciola spp., is a global parasitic infection whose prevalence is on the rise, particularly in warmer regions with favorable temperature and humidity conditions. This study examines the temporal presence of Fasciola spp. in various climatic zones across Iran, focusing on Gilan province as an endemic area. We calculated the Malone index for 5-year intervals spanning significant epidemics in 1988 and 1999 in Gilan, as well as 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020. The results revealed a significant increase in Malone indices during August, September, and October in 1988, indicating a higher risk for Fasciola presence than in other months. These months were categorized as moderate risk. In 1999, September exhibited moderate risk, while October was classified as low risk. The risk levels remained relatively low in 2005, with the highest value in September and October. Similarly, October and September showed the highest risks in 2010, while October was identified as highly risky in 2015. In 2020, August displayed a higher risk, while September, October, and November indicated low risk. The analysis highlights the variability of risk levels across different years, with September and October consistently appearing as months with a higher probability of Fasciola presence. Conversely, the risk diminishes from January to July, which is considered a low-risk period in the region. Interestingly, a comparison with three different geographical regions in central, southern, and western Iran revealed that the Malone index was zero in all months of the year, except for two cases, suggesting unfavorable conditions for Fasciola presence in these areas. This research sheds light on the complex interplay between climatic variables and the presence of Fasciola spp., with the potential to inform the development of targeted strategies for preventing and controlling this parasite in Gilan province, a known hotspot for fasciolosis, as well as in other regions with similar climatic conditions.

A model based on geographical information systems for mapping the risk of fascioliasis was developed for the southern part of Espírito Santo state, Brazil. The determinants investigated were precipitation, temperature, elevation, slope, soil type and land use. Weightings and grades were assigned to determinants and their categories according to their relevance with respect to fascioliasis. Theme maps depicting the spatial distribution of risk areas indicate that over 50% of southern Espírito Santo is either at high or at very high risk for fascioliasis. These areas were found to be characterized by comparatively high temperature but relatively low slope, low precipitation and low elevation corresponding to periodically flooded grasslands or soils that promote water retention.

Fasciolosis caused by Fasciola hepatica severely affects the efficiency of livestock production systems worldwide. In addition to the economic impact inflicted on livestock farmers, fasciolosis is an emergent zoonosis. This review emphasizes different aspects of the disease in South America. Available data on epidemiology in bovines and ovines in different countries, as well as a growing body of information on other domestic and wildlife definitive hosts, are summarized. The issue of drug resistance that compromises the long-term sustainability of current pharmacological strategies is examined from a regional perspective. Finally, efforts to develop a single-antigen recombinant vaccine in ruminants are reviewed, focusing on the cases of leucine aminopeptidase or thioredoxin glutathione reductase.

The impact of global warming on the transmission of fascioliasis, a highly pathogenic zoonotic snail-borne disease, was already highlighted during the 2010’s. However, since then, only a few studies have tried to relate the climatic change with the uprise of outbreaks in endemic areas of animal or human fascioliasis. This might be because assessing the consequences of a changing climate on the spread of fascioliasis is extremely challenging, as it presents the widest latitudinal, longitudinal and altitudinal distribution known for a snail-borne disease. In the Americas, where it is only caused by Fasciola hepatica , the disease is widespread throughout the continent, except in its southernmost extremity in the Patagonia region, which was believed to be due to the too low temperatures. Though, recent empirical evidence indicates an ongoing spread of the disease into more southern latitudes. The present study aims to assess the long-term evolution of climate change factors and forecast indices throughout this extreme South American region to conclude whether their impact might have been the cause of the southward expansion of the fascioliasis endemic area. The use of seasonal-trend decomposition analyses and of spatial interpolation techniques demonstrated a remarkable climatic change in the Patagonia region allowing to clarify the southern spread of the disease. This is the first study highlighting a clear link between the consequences of a changing climate and the spread of a fascioliasis endemic area and its transmission risk to extreme latitudes. Moreover, it provides some crucial recommendations and concerns regarding the application and interpretation of two widely applied climatic forecast indices. If current climate trends persist, this geographical expansion is expected to progress further. These findings not only provide critical insight into local disease dynamics but also underscore the broader implications of climate-driven changes in the distribution of snail-borne diseases globally.