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Learning, the foundation of adaptive and intelligent behavior, is based on changes in neural assemblies and reflected by the modulation of electric brain responses. In infancy, long-term memory traces are formed by auditory learning, improving discrimination skills, in particular those relevant for speech perception and understanding. Here we show direct neural evidence that neural memory traces are formed by auditory learning prior to birth. Our findings indicate that prenatal experiences have a remarkable influence on the brain’s auditory discrimination accuracy, which may support, for example, language acquisition during infancy. Consequently, our results also imply that it might be possible to support early auditory development and potentially compensate for difficulties of genetic nature, such as language impairment or dyslexia. Learning, the foundation of adaptive and intelligent behavior, is based on plastic changes in neural assemblies, reflected by the modulation of electric brain responses. In infancy, auditory learning implicates the formation and strengthening of neural long-term memory traces, improving discrimination skills, in particular those forming the prerequisites for speech perception and understanding. Although previous behavioral observations show that newborns react differentially to unfamiliar sounds vs. familiar sound material that they were exposed to as fetuses, the neural basis of fetal learning has not thus far been investigated. Here we demonstrate direct neural correlates of human fetal learning of speech-like auditory stimuli. We presented variants of words to fetuses; unlike infants with no exposure to these stimuli, the exposed fetuses showed enhanced brain activity (mismatch responses) in response to pitch changes for the trained variants after birth. Furthermore, a significant correlation existed between the amount of prenatal exposure and brain activity, with greater activity being associated with a higher amount of prenatal speech exposure. Moreover, the learning effect was generalized to other types of similar speech sounds not included in the training material. Consequently, our results indicate neural commitment specifically tuned to the speech features heard before birth and their memory representations.

Human hearing develops progressively during the last trimester of gestation. Near-term fetuses can discriminate acoustic features, such as frequencies and spectra, and process complex auditory streams. Fetal and neonatal studies show that they can remember frequently recurring sounds. However, existing data can only show retention intervals up to several days after birth. Here we show that auditory memories can last at least six weeks. Experimental fetuses were given precisely controlled exposure to a descending piano melody twice daily during the 35(th), 36(th), and 37(th) weeks of gestation. Six weeks later we assessed the cardiac responses of 25 exposed infants and 25 naive control infants, while in quiet sleep, to the descending melody and to an ascending control piano melody. The melodies had precisely inverse contours, but similar spectra, identical duration, tempo and rhythm, thus, almost identical amplitude envelopes. All infants displayed a significant heart rate change. In exposed infants, the descending melody evoked a cardiac deceleration that was twice larger than the decelerations elicited by the ascending melody and by both melodies in control infants. Thus, 3-weeks of prenatal exposure to a specific melodic contour affects infants 'auditory processing' or perception, i.e., impacts the autonomic nervous system at least six weeks later, when infants are 1-month old. Our results extend the retention interval over which a prenatally acquired memory of a specific sound stream can be observed from 3-4 days to six weeks. The long-term memory for the descending melody is interpreted in terms of enduring neurophysiological tuning and its significance for the developmental psychobiology of attention and perception, including early speech perception, is discussed.

Most archaeologists and bioarchaeologists receive little or no training in the recognition of skeletal remains of fetuses, infants, and children. Yet many research sites may contain such materials. Without a framework for identifying the bones or the excavation techniques suited to their recovery, archaeologists may often overlook subadult skeletal remains or even confuse them with animal bones. The Osteology of Infants and Children fills the need for a field and lab manual on this important topic and provides a supplemental textbook for human osteology courses. Focusing on juvenile skeletons, their recovery and identification, and siding in both field and lab settings, the volume provides basic descriptions and careful illustrations of each skeletal element at varying stages of development, along with sections on differentiation from other bones and siding tips. The book offers detailed treatment of the skull and teeth, including the cranial vault and facial bones, and examines the infracranial skeleton: vertebrae, pelvis, chest, shoulders, arms, hands, legs, and feet. A quick reference guide explains age estimation and identification templates. The illustrations are enhanced by photographs from two recent archaeology projects in Egypt, at Abydos and Dakhleh Oasis. The extensive collection of fetal and child remains from these sites provides new reference material unavailable in previous publications, making this manual an unparalleled resource in the field of physical anthropology.

In the developed world, extreme prematurity is the leading cause of neonatal mortality and morbidity due to a combination of organ immaturity and iatrogenic injury. Until now, efforts to extend gestation using extracorporeal systems have achieved limited success. Here we report the development of a system that incorporates a pumpless oxygenator circuit connected to the fetus of a lamb via an umbilical cord interface that is maintained within a closed ‘amniotic fluid’ circuit that closely reproduces the environment of the womb. We show that fetal lambs that are developmentally equivalent to the extreme premature human infant can be physiologically supported in this extra-uterine device for up to 4 weeks. Lambs on support maintain stable haemodynamics, have normal blood gas and oxygenation parameters and maintain patency of the fetal circulation. With appropriate nutritional support, lambs on the system demonstrate normal somatic growth, lung maturation and brain growth and myelination. The ability to support the development of a premature fetus in the form of an extracorporeal system has had limited success. Here, the authors show that an extra-uterine device that mimics the intra-uterine environment can provide physiologic support for the extreme premature lamb fetus for four weeks.

Objective. In this prospective randomized study, fetal behavior was investigated in order to determine the standard parameters of fetal movements and facial expressions in all three trimesters of normal pregnancy. Methods. Sixty-three pregnant women with singleton pregnancies in all trimesters were included in the investigation. Four-dimensional (4D) ultrasound was performed for each patient over a 30-minute period. Variables of maternal and fetal characteristics including gestational age, eight fetal movement patterns in the first trimester, and sixteen parameters of fetal movement and fetal facial expression patterns in the second and third trimesters were recorded for the construction of fetal neurological charts. Results. In the first trimester, a tendency towards an increased frequency of fetal movement patterns with increasing gestational age was noticed. Only the startle movement pattern seemed to occur stagnantly during the first trimester (p > 0.05). At the beginning of the second trimester, the frequency of fetal movement patterns tended to increase. During the second and third trimester, multiple regression and polynomial regression revealed statistically significant changes in tongue expulsion (p < 0.05), smiling (p < 0.05), grimacing (p < 0.05), swallowing (p < 0.05), eye blinking (p < 0.01), head movements, and all hand to body contact movements (p < 0.01), except for head anteflexion (p > 0.05). There were no statistically significant changes during the second and third trimesters in mouthing, yawning, and sucking (p > 0.05). At the middle of the third trimester, the fetuses displayed decreasing or stagnant incidence of fetal facial expressions except for eye blinking, which showed increased frequency with increasing gestational age. A statistically significant correlation was found between all head movements and hand to body contact patterns during the second and third trimesters except for head anteflexion (r = −0.231; p > 0.05). Conclusions. The full range of quantitative fetal facial expressions and fetal movement patterns can be assessed successfully by 4D sonography. It is important to be able to assess normal fetal behavior throughout gestation to identify abnormal behavior before birth.

Labor induction with traditional drugs is sometimes associated with fetal complications as fetal distress or death. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of labor induction by laser acupuncture on fetal well-being in post-term pregnancy. Nulliparous women at 40 weeks or greater were randomized to sham laser group versus laser acupuncture group. Each session consisted of laser application on bilateral points LI 4, SP 6, BL 31, and BL 32. The study was conducted in Cairo University, National Institute of Laser Enhanced Sciences. Sixty nulliparous women were randomized into laser acupuncture group n  = 30 and control group n  = 30. Women were treated in both groups in three consecutive days in post-date pregnancy. Results (66.6 %) showed a significant difference in rate of normal vaginal delivery (NVD) between acupuncture group (50 %) and control group (50 %) ( p  = 0.002). There was no significant difference of enrollment delivery time between laser acupuncture and sham groups ( p  > 0.05). There were six cases of cesarean section (CS) due to no fetal movement with normal cardiotocography (CTG). Laser acupuncture has no effect on fetus, and its effect on fetal movement needs more investigations. Laser can induce labor if the cervical length is less than 1 cm and dilation (0).

Skin regeneration is impeded by a host of factors. Working out the part played by each could lead to fresh approaches to treating burns and scars. Skin regeneration is impeded by a host of factors. Working out the part played by each could lead to fresh approaches to treating burns and scars.

The placenta is a fetal-derived organ whose function is crucial for both maternal and fetal health. The human placenta contains a population of fetal macrophages termed Hofbauer cells. These macrophages play diverse roles, aiding in placental development, function and defence. The outer layer of the human placenta is formed by syncytiotrophoblast cells, that fuse to form the syncytium. Adhered to the syncytium at sites of damage, on the maternal side of the placenta, is a population of macrophages termed placenta associated maternal macrophages (PAMM1a). Here we discuss recent developments that have led to renewed insight into our understanding of the ontogeny, phenotype and function of placental macrophages. Finally, we discuss how the application of new technologies within placental research are helping us to further understand these cells.

Umbilical cord clamping at birth has a major impact on an infant's cardiovascular system that varies in significance depending upon whether the infant has commenced breathing. As umbilical venous return is a major source of preload for the left ventricle during fetal life, recent experimental evidence has shown that clamping the umbilical cord severely limits cardiac venous return in the absence of pulmonary ventilation. As a result, cardiac output greatly reduces and remains low until breathing commences. Once the infant begins breathing, aeration of the lung triggers a large increase in pulmonary blood flow, which replaces umbilical venous return as the source of preload for the left ventricle. As a result, cardiac output markedly increases, as indicated by an increase in heart rate immediately after birth. Thus, infants born apnoeic and hypoxic and have their cords immediately clamped, are likely to have a restricted cardiac output combined with hypoxia. As increased cardiac output is a major physiological defence mechanism that counteracts the effects of hypoxaemia, limiting the increase in cardiac output exposes the infant to ischaemia along with hypoxia. However, if the infant commences breathing, aerates its lungs and increases pulmonary blood flow before the umbilical cord is clamped, then pulmonary venous return can immediately take over the supply of left ventricular preload upon cord clamping. As a result, there is no intervening period of reduced preload and cardiac output and the large swings in arterial pressures and flows are reduced leading to a more stable circulatory transition.

ObjectiveTo examine maternal and fetal cardiovascular responses to high-intensity resistance exercise in pregnancy.Methods10 healthy pregnant (26.4±3.2 weeks gestation) and 10 healthy non-pregnant individuals were recruited (34.8±6 and 33.5±2.9 years, respectively). At least 48 hours after baseline strength testing to determine 10-repetition maximum (10 RM), participants completed 10 repetitions of barbell back squat, bench press and deadlift at 70%, 80% and 90% of 10 RM with free breathing, followed by 10 repetitions at 90% 10 RM with a Valsalva manoeuvre. Maternal heart rate was monitored continuously. Fetal heart rate, umbilical systolic/diastolic (S/D) ratio, resistive index (RI) and pulsatility index (PI), as well as maternal blood pressure, glucose and lactate were assessed immediately before and after exercise.ResultsThe amount of weight lifted and the rate of perceived exertion by pregnant and non-pregnant participants were similar throughout each exercise. Maternal heart rate increased with the amount of weight lifted, peaking with the use of the Valsalva manoeuvre (squat: 137.3±8.4 bpm; bench press: 110.5±10.4 bpm; deadlift: 130.7±9.0 bpm). Fetal bradycardia was not observed, and fetal heart rate did not change from pre-to-post exercise (squat: p=0.639; bench press: p=0.682; deadlift: p=0.847). Umbilical blood flow metrics, such as RI, remained within normal ranges throughout each set of squats (p=0.642), bench press (p=0.287) and deadlifts (p=0.614).ConclusionOur findings suggest that high-intensity resistance exercises are well tolerated by both mother and fetus, including while using the Valsalva manoeuvre.