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PurposeThe current fire protection measures in buildings do not account for all contemporary fire hazard issues, which has made fire safety a growing concern. Therefore, this paper aims to present a critical review of current fire protection measures and their applicability to address current challenges relating to fire hazards in buildings.Design/methodology/approachTo overcome fire hazards in buildings, impact of fire hazards is also reviewed to set the context for fire protection measures. Based on the review, an integrated framework for mitigation of fire hazards is proposed. The proposed framework involves enhancement of fire safety in four key areas: fire protection features in buildings, regulation and enforcement, consumer awareness and technology and resources advancement. Detailed strategies on improving fire safety in buildings in these four key areas are presented, and future research and training needs are identified.FindingsCurrent fire protection measures lead to an unquantified level of fire safety in buildings, provide minimal strategies to mitigate fire hazard and do not account for contemporary fire hazard issues. Implementing key measures that include reliable fire protection systems, proper regulation and enforcement of building code provisions, enhancement of public awareness and proper use of technology and resources is key to mitigating fire hazard in buildings. Major research and training required to improve fire safety in buildings include developing cost-effective fire suppression systems and rational fire design approaches, characterizing new materials and developing performance-based codes.Practical implicationsThe proposed framework encompasses both prevention and management of fire hazard. To demonstrate the applicability of this framework in improving fire safety in buildings, major limitations of current fire protection measures are identified, and detailed strategies are provided to address these limitations using proposed fire safety framework.Social implicationsFire represents a severe hazard in both developing and developed countries and poses significant threat to life, structure, property and environment. The proposed framework has social implications as it addresses some of the current challenges relating to fire hazard in buildings and will enhance overall fire safety.Originality/valueThe novelty of proposed framework lies in encompassing both prevention and management of fire hazard. This is unlike current fire safety improvement strategies, which focus only on improving fire protection features in buildings (i.e. managing impact of fire hazard) using performance-based codes. To demonstrate the applicability of this framework in improving fire safety in buildings, major limitations of current fire protection measures are identified and detailed strategies are provided to address these limitations using proposed fire safety framework. Special emphasis is given to cost-effectiveness of proposed strategies, and research and training needs for further enhancing building fire safety are identified.

HighlightsThe p–n segment thermoelectric aerogel fiber was fabricated through an alternating coaxial wet-spinning strategy.Resultant alternating p–n segment thermoelectric fiber was electrically connected in series (two p–n pairs with a length of 3 cm) with an outstanding electrical conductivity of 23.76 S m−1.Thermoelectric textile-based self-powered fire warning electronics exhibited sensitivity (trigger time within 1.43 s) and repeatable temperature sensing performance for firefighting clothing.Firefighting protective clothing is a crucial protective equipment for firefighters to minimize skin burn and ensure safety firefighting operation and rescue mission. A recent increasing concern is to develop self-powered fire warning materials that can be incorporated into the firefighting clothing to achieve active fire protection for firefighters before the protective clothing catches fire on fireground. However, it is still a challenge to facilely design and manufacture thermoelectric (TE) textile (TET)-based fire warning electronics with dynamic surface conformability and breathability. Here, we develop an alternate coaxial wet-spinning strategy to continuously produce alternating p/n-type TE aerogel fibers involving n-type Ti3C2Tx MXene and p-type MXene/SWCNT-COOH as core materials, and tough aramid nanofiber as protective shell, which simultaneously ensure the flexibility and high-efficiency TE power generation. With such alternating p/n-type TE fibers, TET-based self-powered fire warning sensors with high mechanical stability and wearability are successfully fabricated through stitching the alternating p–n segment TE fibers into aramid fabric. The results indicate that TET-based fire warning electronics containing 50 p–n pairs produce the open-circuit voltage of 7.5 mV with a power density of 119.79 nW cm−2 at a temperature difference of 300 °C. The output voltage signal is then calculated as corresponding surface temperature of firefighting clothing based on a linear relationship between TE voltage and temperature. The fire alarm response time and flame-retardant properties are further displayed. Such self-powered fire warning electronics are true textiles that offer breathability and compatibility with body movement, demonstrating their potential application in firefighting clothing.

Fires can lead to costly building damage as well as loss of lives and injuries. Installed to protect buildings from fire, or to limit the damage from such outbreaks, fire protection measures are a common feature in buildings. However, these features come at a cost. Although quite ubiquitous in buildings, the value of these features to private individuals and to society is not fully understood. To understand their value, a cost benefit analysis detailing the costs and benefits of fire protection measures is needed. Carrying out such an analysis requires methods for computing both the cost of these fire protection measures, and losses from fires (including both direct and indirect losses). This study outlines methodologies for evaluating those costs and losses. An exhaustive collection of available data necessary for estimating both costs and losses is presented. Several limitations in current methodologies and data constraints were identified, with recommendations proposed to address these shortcomings. Relevant sections of a study by the authors that refines fire protection cost estimation at national and sub-national levels are emphasized, including updated building categories, guidance on computing multipliers, and detailed cost calculation methods for installation and maintenance costs. The calculation uses regularly updated U.S. Census Bureau construction data, ensuring timely multiplier updates. The insights and suggestions presented in this study will ultimately refine the process of selecting fire protection strategies that maximize the net benefit of fire protection measures for both private stakeholders and society at large.

This study investigates the fire resistance of columns in container-style steel modular buildings through fire tests. Three individual columns and one combined column were tested to evaluate the fire resistance performance of various protective measures: fire-resistant coatings, calcium silicate boards, and rock wool sandwich panels. The combined column protected by 75 mm rock wool sandwich panels achieved a fire resistance limit of 102.1 min. The study concludes that rock wool sandwich panels are a feasible, economical fire protection solution for such columns. The required thickness of rock wool for different fire resistance limits was calculated, providing valuable design insights for container-style steel modular buildings.

Steel structures quickly lose stability during a fire, which is why fire protection measures are used to increase their fire resistance limits. Structural fire protection in the form of boards or covers can achieve structural stability values ranging from 30 to 240 min under various fire conditions. Structural fire protection has certain advantages—it does not change its geometry during a fire, its behavior is predictable during testing (unlike intumescent fire protection), it has broad climatic applicability, and it can achieve high fire resistance limits. This article presents a mathematical model that calculates the minimum cost of structural fire protection while ensuring that the unexposed side of a steel column does not exceed 500 °C and achieves 180 min of standard fire resistance. Optimal values were extracted using genetic algorithms in the MS Excel environment and the “Solver” tool. The model was tested on a sample of 39 structural materials, such as cement boards, covers, and enclosures. The calculated coefficient of determination (R2) for the predictive model of the main component was 0.948. The predicted material cost was 6.83 $/m2. This study’s results can be used for preliminary cost estimation of fire protection treatments for steel structures in large design and operating companies.

Aim: The purpose of this article is to highlight the issue of fire protection in garages, with particular emphasis on facilities where charging points for electric and plug-in hybrid cars are to be installed. Introduction: The development of electromobility poses new challenges for fire protection in terms of properly securing garages in buildings and ensuring appropriate conditions for rescue operations. Fires involving electric vehicles, especially those with lithium-ion traction batteries, are characterized by high dynamics, long duration, the risk of rapid spread, the release of large amounts of smoke, as well as toxic and corrosive chemicals. Giving particular consideration to these hazards is especially important in enclosed garages, where difficulties in accessing the fire source and removing toxic combustion products are to be expected. The challenge lies in selecting the right active and passive fire protection measures for garages, as well as electrical protection for charging points for electric and plug-in hybrid cars. Methodology: As part of the work on the article, literature on the subject was reviewed and analysed, along with the current legal status regarding the installation of charging points at parking spaces, as well as applicable regulations and technical knowledge in the field of fire protection in garages. Conclusions: The above content provides a concise overview of the current state of knowledge regarding the fire hazard posed by electric cars. The article discusses the applicable regulations and technical principles of fire protection in garages. Solutions for fire protection in buildings where electric or plug-in hybrid vehicles are expected to be charged should include safety measures appropriate to the associated fire risk. Among the most important safeguards for controlling this hazard are early fire detection, which allows firefighting measures to be taken in the initial stages, and the use of solutions that limit the spread of fire until rescue teams arrive at the scene.

Aim: The purpose of this study is to identify cyber threats associated with systems integrating fire protection devices (SIUP). The analysis includes conducting a comprehensive assessment of potential attack sites (vulnerabilities) and recommendations for building designers and managers to minimise adverse actions. Project and methods: A detailed review of the literature and cybersecurity standards applicable to fire protection systems, such as NFPA 72, was conducted, from which key points that are vulnerable elements and represent attack surfaces were identified. The Cybersecurity for Fire Protection Systems report from a workshop held by the Research Foundation in 2021 was analysed. Results: Analysis of the collected research material showed that the key points of vulnerability are human factors, software, hardware, wired and wireless connections and system security. In addition, internal threats, i.e. lack of training, malicious action by employees, invasion by unknown software and too much access by security personnel to system components, are also important issues. It has been found that cybercriminals can use various techniques: denial-of- service (DoS) attacks, man-in-the-middle attacks, remote code execution and social engineering, to disrupt systems. To prevent this and minimise the risk of attacks, it is recommended that security configuration guides should be issued, that specialists should be employed and that strategies should be created to increase the resilience of systems integrating fire appliances to cyber attacks. Currently, Polish regulations are mainly based on the technical aspects of SIUP operation, i.e. the installation and operation of alarm systems. There is a lack of relevant legal regulations that directly address the issue of the network and cyber security of these systems. Conclusions: It is necessary to urgently develop and implement comprehensive legal regulations that would take into account the specificity of the cyber security of fire protection systems in Poland. Future research should also focus on the human factor aspects of SIUP systems security. Keywords: safety, cyber security, fire protection, system integrating fire protection devices, SIUP, fire protection device