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\"A complete guide to growing flax and cotton in your home garden for the purpose of making clothing: how to grow, harvest, and prepare the fiber for spinning into yarn; how to spin cotton and flax/linen; the basics of weaving cloth; and suggestions on patterns and how to weave to create the pieces you need for clothing, and how to sew your woven pieces together\"-- Provided by publisher.

Abstract Flax occupies an important place in the world food supply as an oil and fiber crop of general and multi-purpose use. It should be noted that modern agriculture uses varieties of flax with high productivity and resistance to stress conditions. Modern varieties of flax respond well to soil fertility, are drought-resistant, technologically advanced and reliable, and are adapted in many countries of the world and are grown on all continents. According to FAO, flax crops annually in the world amount to more than 8 million hectares of flax. The main types of products obtained from growing flax are seeds and fiber. For many centuries, fiber flax was grown to obtain fiber, and oil flax to obtain seeds and oil. Flax growing is a specific branch of plant growing, in which the production process can be divided into two production cycles: the first is growing and harvesting flax, the second is processing of raw materials. Analysis of the results by stages of production is carried out taking into account the quality of flax products. Quality control of the resulting products is an important criterion for deciding on their further use in production for the manufacture of various goods for the population. High-quality flax fiber should contain 75-80% cellulose, no more than 4-5% lignin, low content of pectin substances. Flaxseed is of great importance in the global food industry as a functional food product. The value of flax seeds is determined by their high content of fats, polyunsaturated fatty acids and proteins. Modern technologies for growing agricultural crops involve the use of new complex fertilizers that can provide plants with essential nutrients - macro- and microelements - during the growing season. The aim of the research was to study the effect of two new complex fertilizers: Complex-Zn and Complex-Extra on the yield and quality of products of two varieties of fiber flax. Research methodology. The studies were conducted over 3 years in field conditions. The varieties of fiber flax Dobrynya and Pamyati Krepkova were studied in the experiments. Flax plants were treated with the studied complex fertilizers during the onset of the formation phase of the first pair of true leaves until the formation of 5-6 pairs of true leaves. The effect of the studied fertilizers on changes in morphological characteristics and plant growth indicators, as well as on yield, was studied. After harvesting, the content of lipids and protein in flax seeds was determined by near infrared spectroscopy. The content of cellulose, lignin, pectin substances and ash in flax fiber was determined. Main research results. In our studies, the use of complex fertilizers containing macro- and microelements contributed to the improvement of plant growth and development, increased yield and quality of flax products by the end of the growing season. Resumo O linho ocupa um lugar importante no suprimento mundial de alimentos como uma cultura de óleo e fibra de uso geral e multifuncional. Deve-se notar que a agricultura moderna utiliza variedades de linho com alta produtividade e resistência a condições de estresse. As variedades modernas de linho respondem bem à fertilidade do solo, são resistentes à seca, tecnologicamente avançadas e confiáveis, adaptando-se a muitos países e cultivadas em todos os continentes. De acordo com a FAO, as plantações de linho anualmente no mundo somam mais de 8 milhões de hectares de linho. Os principais produtos obtidos do cultivo do linho são sementes e fibras. Por muitos séculos, o linho de fibra foi cultivado para obtenção de fibras, e o linho oleaginoso era utilizado para produção de sementes e óleo. O cultivo do linho é um ramo específico da produção vegetal, cujo processo de produção pode ser dividido em dois ciclos: o primeiro é o cultivo e a colheita do linho, e o segundo é o processamento de matérias-primas. A análise dos resultados produtivos é realizada levando em consideração a qualidade dos produtos de linho. O controle de qualidade dos produtos resultantes é um critério importante para decidir sobre seu uso posterior na fabricação de vários bens para a população. A fibra de linho de alta qualidade deve conter 75-80% de celulose, não mais do que 4-5% de lignina, baixo teor de substâncias pécticas. A semente de linhaça é de grande importância na indústria alimentícia global como um produto alimentar funcional. O valor das sementes de linhaça é determinado por seu alto teor de gorduras, ácidos graxos poli-insaturados e proteínas. As tecnologias modernas para o cultivo agrícola envolvem o uso de novos fertilizantes complexos que podem fornecer às plantas nutrientes essenciais – macro e microelementos – durante a estação de crescimento. O objetivo da pesquisa foi estudar o efeito de dois novos fertilizantes complexos: Complex-Zn e Complex-Extra no rendimento e na qualidade dos produtos de duas variedades de fibra de linho. Metodologia de pesquisa. Os estudos foram conduzidos ao longo de três anos em condições de campo. As variedades de linho fibroso Dobrynya e Pamyati Krepkova foram estudadas nos experimentos. As plantas de linho foram tratadas com os fertilizantes complexos estudados durante o início da fase de formação do primeiro par de folhas verdadeiras, até a formação de 5-6 pares de folhas verdadeiras. Foi estudado o efeito dos fertilizantes estudados nas mudanças nas características morfológicas e indicadores de crescimento da planta, bem como no rendimento. Após a colheita, o conteúdo de lipídios e proteínas nas sementes de linho foi determinado por espectroscopia no infravermelho próximo. O conteúdo de celulose, lignina, substâncias de pectina e cinzas na fibra de linho foi analisado. Principais resultados da pesquisa. Em nossos estudos, o uso de fertilizantes complexos contendo macro e microelementos contribuiu para a melhoria do crescimento e desenvolvimento das plantas, aumentou o rendimento e a qualidade dos produtos de linho até o final da estação de crescimento.

Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) is one of the founder crops domesticated for oil and fiber uses in the Near-Eastern Fertile Crescent, but its domestication history remains largely elusive. Genetic inferences so far have expanded our knowledge in several aspects of flax domestication such as the wild progenitor, the first use of domesticated flax, and domestication events. However, little is known about flax domestication processes involving multiple domestication events. This study applied genotyping-by-sequencing to infer flax domestication processes. Ninety-three Linum samples representing four flax domestication groups (oilseed, fiber, winter and capsular dehiscence) and its wild progenitor (or pale flax; L. bienne Mill.) were sequenced. SNP calling identified 16,998 SNPs that were widely distributed across 15 flax chromosomes. Diversity analysis found that pale flax had the largest nucleotide diversity, followed by indehiscent, winter, oilseed and fiber cultivated flax. Pale flax seemed to be under population contraction, while the other four domestication groups were under population expansion after bottleneck. Demographic inferences showed that five Linum groups carried clear genetic signals of multiple mixture events that were associated largely with oilseed flax. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that oilseed, fiber and winter flax formed two separate phylogenetic subclades. One subclade had abundant winter flax, along with some oilseed and fiber flax, mainly originating in the Near East and nearby regions. The other subclade mainly had oilseed and fiber flax originating from Europe and other parts of the world. Dating genetic divergences with an assumption of 10,000 years before present (BP) of flax domestication revealed that oilseed and fiber flax spread to Europe 5800 years BP and domestication for winter hardiness occurred in the Near East 5100 years BP. These findings provide new significant insights into flax domestication processes.

Background Cinnamoyl-CoA reductase (CCR) is the first important and committed enzyme in the monolignol synthesis branch of the lignin biosynthesis (LB) pathway, catalyzing the conversion of cinnamoyl-CoAs to cinnamaldehydes and is crucial for the growth of Linum usitatissimum (flax), an important fiber crop. However, little information is available about CCR in flax ( Linum usitatissimum L.). Results In this study, we conducted a genome-wide analysis of the CCR gene family and identified a total of 22 CCR genes. The 22 CCR genes were distributed across 9 chromosomes, designated LuCCR1 - LuCCR22 . Multiple sequence alignment and conserved motif analyses revealed that LuCCR7/13/15/20 harbor completely conserved NADP-specific, NAD(P)-binding, and CCR signature motifs. Furthermore, each of these LuCCRs is encoded by 5 exons separated by 4 introns, a characteristic feature of functional CCRs . Phylogenetic analysis grouped LuCCRs into two clades, with LuCCR7/13/15/20 clustering with functional CCRs involved in LB in dicotyledonous plants. RNA-seq analysis indicated that LuCCR13/20 genes are highly expressed throughout all flax developmental stages, particularly in lignified tissues such as roots and stems, with increased expression during stem maturation. These findings suggest that LuCCR13/20 play crucial roles in the biosynthesis process of flax lignin. Additionally, LuCCR2/5/10/18 were upregulated under various types of abiotic stress, highlighting their potential roles in flax defense-related processes. Conclusions This study systematically analyzes the CCR gene family (CCRGF) of flax ( Linum usitatissimum L.) at the genomic level for the first time, so as to select the whole members of the CCRGF of flax and to ascertain their potential roles in lignin synthesis. Therefore, in future work, we can target genetic modification of LuCCR13/20 to optimize the content of flax lignin. As such, this research establishes a theoretical foundation for studying LuCCR gene functions and offers a new perspective for cultivating low-lignin flax varieties.

Background Linseed is an important oilseed crop with diverse applications in the food, nutraceutical, oil, and paint industries. Flowering time is a critical trait in linseed, as it greatly influences seed yield potential and quality across various agro-ecological zones. Trehalose-6-phosphate synthase (TPS) genes have been implicated in the regulation of flowering time in plants. Therefore, a comprehensive analysis of the TPS gene family in linseed, using comparative genomics and bioinformatics approaches, is essential for elucidating the genetic mechanisms underlying flowering time regulation in this crop. Results A total of 18 LuTPS genes, including several paralogs, were identified in the linseed genome and clustered into two distinct groups. Gene expression analysis in developing floral buds, flower, and vegetative tissues revealed that most TPS genes exhibited basal expression levels. However, LuTPS6.1, LuTPS6.2, LuTPS10.1, LuTPS1.1, LuTPS1.2, LuTPS7.2, LuTPS7.3, LuTPS7.4 , and LuTPS8. 2 showed significantly higher expression and strong correlation with key flowering-related genes such as FT, FUL, and SOC1 . Allelic variation analysis using early- and late-flowering linseed accessions revealed trait-specific SNPs in LuTPS6.1 and LuTPS10.2 . A comprehensive analysis of cis-regulatory elements (CREs ) in the promoter regions of LuTPS genes, compared to the entire linseed genome, identified several CREs that were significantly enriched in TPS gene promoters, as well as those that were consistently present across all LuTPS gene promoters. Furthermore, the genome-wide syntenic network analysis involving linseed and nine other plant genomes provided valuable insights into TPS-associated syntelogs and the evolutionary dynamics and expansion of the TPS gene family. The physical proximity of TPS genes to known flowering time QTLs/QTNs is also discussed. Conclusion This study, with TPS gene family characterization, gene expression and allelic variation highlights the potential role of the TPS genes in the regulation of flowering time in linseed. The identified enriched CREs in the promoters of TPS genes would be crucial to understand the regulation of TPS genes in growth, development and stress response. TPS-associated syntelogs provided valuable insights into the evolutionary history and expansion of the TPS gene family. Collectively, these findings represent a significant step toward understanding the complex genetic regulation of flowering time in linseed.

Flaxseeds are a functional food representing, by far, the richest natural grain source of lignans, and accumulate substantial amounts of other health beneficial phenolic compounds (i.e., flavonols, hydroxycinnamic acids). This specific accumulation pattern is related to their numerous beneficial effects on human health. However, to date, little data is available concerning the relative impact of genetic and geographic parameters on the phytochemical yield and composition. Here, the major influence of the cultivar over geographic parameters on the flaxseed phytochemical accumulation yield and composition is evidenced. The importance of genetic parameters on the lignan accumulation was further confirmed by gene expression analysis monitored by RT-qPCR. The corresponding antioxidant activity of these flaxseed extracts was evaluated, both in vitro, using ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), and iron chelating assays, as well as in vivo, by monitoring the impact of UV-induced oxidative stress on the lipid membrane peroxidation of yeast cells. Our results, both the in vitro and in vivo studies, confirm that flaxseed extracts are an effective protector against oxidative stress. The results point out that secoisolariciresinol diglucoside, caffeic acid glucoside, and p-coumaric acid glucoside are the main contributors to the antioxidant capacity. Considering the health benefits of these compounds, the present study demonstrates that the flaxseed cultivar type could greatly influence the phytochemical intakes and, therefore, the associated biological activities. We recommend that this crucial parameter be considered in epidemiological studies dealing with flaxseeds.

Seed coat color, a trait exhibiting significant phenotypic variation, has been reported in previous studies to influence key germination parameters, including germination percentage, germination rate, and mean germination time. Looking into these relationships can help us identify plant varieties that better withstand both living threats and environmental challenges, which would make breeding programs more effective and focused. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the drought tolerance of 20 flax varieties at the germination stage, investigate the effects of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) on seed germination performance under drought stress conditions, and explore potential associations between seed coat color and germination parameters under both stressed and non-stressed conditions using digital image processing. The final germination percentage, germination speed, and span of germination were assessed for seeds germinated under various germination conditions, including 23% PEG (− 0.169 MPa), 10 mM GABA, 23% PEG + 10 mM GABA, and a control treatment at 25 ± 0.5 °C. The results demonstrated substantial genetic variation across all germination parameters measured in the seeds of 20 distinct flax varieties. Genotype-specific responses to drought stress were observed, with 10 mM GABA alleviating the effects of drought. Among the varieties tested, Hermes exhibited the highest drought tolerance, while Lisette and Bonny-Doon were identified as drought-sensitive. Digital image processing analysis revealed significant differences ( p  < 0.05) in drought tolerance levels among flax varieties based on variations in RGB values of their seed coats. Although no statistically significant correlations were found in direct pairwise correlations between the color parameters converted from RGB (Red, Green, and Blue) to L*a*b* and germination parameters, multivariate PCA-biplot analysis indicated that L* and b* values had a positive influence on germination performance. In contrast, seeds with higher a* values exhibited reduced germination performance. Furthermore, the biplot analysis suggested that varieties with lighter seed coats tended to show better germination compared to those with darker seed coats. These findings highlight the potential of incorporating seed coat color parameters into flax breeding programs, suggesting their role in enhancing seed germination and overall seed quality under various stress conditions.

Main conclusion Upregulation of the terpenoid pathway and increased ABA content in flax upon Fusarium infection leads to activation of the early plant’s response (PR genes, cell wall remodeling, and redox status). Plants have developed a number of defense strategies against the adverse effects of fungi such as Fusarium oxysporum . One such defense is the production of antioxidant secondary metabolites, which fall into two main groups: the phenylpropanoids and the terpenoids. While functions and biosynthesis of phenylpropanoids have been extensively studied, very little is known about the genes controlling the terpenoid synthesis pathway in flax. They can serve as antioxidants, but are also substrates for a plethora of different compounds, including those of regulatory functions, like ABA. ABA’s function during pathogen attack remains obscure and often depends on the specific plant-pathogen interactions. In our study we showed that in flax the non-mevalonate pathway is strongly activated in the early hours of pathogen infection and that there is a redirection of metabolites towards ABA synthesis. The elevated synthesis of ABA correlates with flax resistance to F. oxysporum , thus we suggest ABA to be a positive regulator of the plant’s early response to the infection.

Background Ascorbate peroxidase (APX) is a crucial antioxidant enzyme involved in regulating hydrogen peroxide levels and signal transduction pathways associated with development and stress responses. However, information about the APX gene family and its evolution and gene function in flax has not been reported. Results This study identified 12 APX genes in flax and analyzed their evolutionary relationships, motif compositions, gene structures, and cis -acting elements, while also predicting potential protein-protein interactions with 226 members of the AP2 family. DREB2C, DREB1A, TOE1, and RAP2.4 likely interact with LuAPX2, LuAPX3, LuAPX7, and LuAPX8. RT-qPCR analysis of the flax APX genes revealed significant differential expression in response to mannitol-induced drought and salinity stresses in both leaf and root tissues. Moreover, the integration of GWAS and RNA-seq data from salt stress revealed that LuAPX12 may be a potential candidate gene for salt tolerance. Compared with the wild type, the heterologous transformation of this gene into Arabidopsis resulted in overexpression lines with better germination rates, APX activity, and growth status, as well as lower H 2 O 2 and MDA levels under salt and osmotic stresses. The gene was further transiently transformed into flax, and the growth status, as well as the APX and CAT activities of the transgenic lines under salt and drought stress, were greater than those of the control. Conclusions A comprehensive genome-wide characterization of the flax APX gene family was conducted, and the function of the APX-R gene LuAPX12 under osmotic and salt stress was preliminarily validated. These results broaden our understanding of the core components of antioxidant defense in flax and provide a theoretical basis for molecular research and breeding for resistance to adverse stress in flax.