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Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill) is a valuable medicinal plant from the Apiaceae family, cultivated for its essential oil, seeds, and leaves, which are used in the pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetics industries. This study tested the hypothesis that plant growth regulators (PGRs) positively modulate the morphological, physiological, and phytochemical properties of fennel. To test this hypothesis, a factorial experiment was carried out with foliar applications of four plant growth regulators, including salicylic acid (SA: 1 and 2 mM), gibberellic acid (GA: 0.25 and 0.5 mM), gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA: 5 and 10 mM), and sodium nitroprusside (SNP: 1.25 and 2.5 mM). The results showed that SNP2.5 and GA0.5 treatments achieved the greatest improvement in growth and morphological traits. For the SNP2.5 treatment, morphological traits exhibited percentage changes ranging from 36.5 to 198.6%. SNP2.5 and SA2 treatments resulted in the highest values for physiological traits. The SNP2.5 treatment caused significant increases in flavonoid and phenolic contents, DPPH radical scavenging activity, and chlorophyll and carotenoid levels, with increases ranging from about 39% to 231% compared to the control. Meanwhile, SA (1 and 2 mM) and GA0.25 had superior effects on phytochemical traits, including essential oil yield and secondary metabolites. GABA10 also positively influenced all traits, though to a lesser extent than other treatments. Control plants consistently exhibited the lowest values across all traits. Metabolite analysis using GC-MS identified a total of 150 compounds, among which 41 showed significant differences among treatments. Notably, six major metabolites accounted for about 70% of the total metabolite content, including apiol (0.742–1.299), camphene hydrate (0.407–0.708), cis-anethole (0.328–0.975), estragole (0.916–1.059), phenyl acetate (5.005–9.705), and limonene (3.902–1.647) respectively for SA1 and SA2. Among these, cis-anethole (40–75%) and limonene (6.5–19%) were identified as the predominant components in the essential oil of the leaves. These findings suggest that certain plant growth regulators, especially SNP and SA, can be used as effective agricultural tools for improving the growth and phytochemical quality of fennel.

The increasing trend of salinization of agricultural lands represents a great threat to the growth of major crops. Hence, shedding light on the salt-tolerance capabilities of three environment-resilient medicinal species from the Apiaceae, i.e. fennel, ajwain, and anise as alternative crops was aimed at. Two genotypes from each of the three medicinal species were exposed to a wide range of water salinities, including 0 (control), 40, 80, and 120 mM NaCl and comparative changes in the leaf photosynthetic pigments, osmoticums, antioxidative enzymes, ionic homeostasis, essential oil, and plant growth were assessed. Even though certain genotype- and species-specificities were observed in the salt-induced modifications of these physiological attributes, decreasing in growth, plant dry mass, root volume, relative water content, and K + concentration concomitant to increasing in the catalase, ascorbate peroxidase, and guaiacol peroxidase activities, malondialdehyde, total soluble carbohydrates, proline and Na + concentrations, Na + /K + , and essential oil were common to the examined species and genotypes. The K + concentration of the stressed plants of anise genotypes was smaller, giving shape to a greater Na + /K + than those of fennel and ajwain. Unlike anise, fennel and ajwain genotypes retained and/or increased the chlorophyll and carotenoids concentrations when exposed to 120 mM NaCl. The greater salt-induced increases in the catalase, ascorbate peroxidase, and guaiacol peroxidase activities along with the less-heightened Na + /K + were concomitant to the smaller depressions in the total plant dry mass and root volume of the fennel and ajwain genotypes, portraying these species more resilient to saline water, compared to anise.

In this study, a comparative proteomic analysis was conducted on four agriculturally important genotypes of fennel ( Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) named Yazd, Tabriz, Varamin, and Karaj to identify effective proteins and mechanisms involved in self-incompatibility. Self-pollinated and open-pollinated seeds from each genotype were planted in separate lines. Then, three umbels of selected plants were enveloped for re-self-pollination, while the other umbels were pollinated by bees. All experiments, including quantification of total protein concentration and mass spectrometry analysis (LC–MS/MS), were carried out on the flower styles from self-compatible and self-incompatible plants of the studied populations. Additionally, the essential oil content of selected plants was measured to assess its correlation with pollination type (or self-compatibility) and genotypes. Results showed that, regardless of the plant genotype, self-incompatibility doubled the total protein content. The highest protein concentration was measured in the Karaj self-incompatible genotype, while the lowest was found in the Yazd self-compatible genotype. Proteomic analysis revealed genotype-specific upregulation of proteins involved in essential oil biosynthesis in fennel, particularly in response to self-incompatibility (SI). While SI induced significant proteomic changes linked to metabolic pathways, the impact on essential oil content varied across genotypes, highlighting the complex interplay of genetic, enzymatic, and environmental factors in essential oil production. The results also indicated that the response of the fennel plant to self-compatibility is strongly correlated to the plant's genotype. According to the results, although plant genotype specifically affects the plant's protein expression profile under self-incompatibility conditions, proteins involved in the production of energy and metabolites necessary for fertilization and compatible crosses, as well as proteins involved in pollen tube formation and growth, are considered key proteins involved in self-compatibility in all studied genotypes. The results proposed a sporophytic mechanism for self-incompatibility in fennel.

Nitrate and nitrite are toxicants that have become increasingly significant environmental chemicals. Increase in environmental distribution of nitrogenous compounds, especially in surface and ground water, has been attributed to the intensive use of nitrate as agricultural fertilizers and to increasing amounts of nitrogenous wastes produced by municipalities, industries, and feedlots. The purpose of this study is to illustrate a fatal nitrate toxicosis in cattle associated with the consumption of fennels ( Foeniculum vulgare ). Fifteen cows from the same farm suddenly developed weakness, muscular tremors, respiratory distress, and finally convulsions. The affected animals died within 24 to 48 h from the onset of the clinical signs. Five cows underwent a complete post-mortem examination. In all examined animals, gross lesions included presence of dark unclotted blood around the nostrils and the anal region, moderate inflammation of the gastrointestinal mucosa, and brown discoloration of the skeletal muscles and kidneys. The histological examination showed tubular degeneration and congestion of glomerular vessels in the kidney. Toxicological analysis detected nitrates at 4 672.2 ppm in the fennels used to feed the animals. The source of exposure to nitrates was identified in the fennels. The fennels were grown in a polluted area of the Campania region in southern Italy and distributed in a public market for human consumption. The waste from the sale of the fennels was fed to the cows. The accumulation of nitrates in some vegetables poses a risk not only for animal health but also for human and environmental safety.

This study investigated the effects of cobalt treatments on the growth, yield, and chemical composition of sweet fennel ( Foeniculum vulgare cv. Dulce) in both pot and field experiments conducted over two growing seasons. The experimental design was structured as a completely randomized block design. In the pot experiment, cobalt was applied at concentrations of 0.0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20 mg L⁻¹. For the field experiment, the concentrations tested were refined to 0.0, 4, 8, 12, 16, and 20 mg L⁻¹ based on preliminary results to better assess the impact on sweet fennel growth and yield. Vegetative growth, yield parameters, and chemical constituents were evaluated 60 and 120 days after sowing. The results indicated that a cobalt concentration of 16 mg L⁻¹ significantly enhanced plant growth, yield, and nutritional quality. Specifically, plant height, leaf number, fresh and dry weights, bulb dimensions, and total yield per feddan showed substantial increases compared to the control. Chemical analysis revealed improvements in macronutrients, micronutrients, total proteins, carbohydrates, soluble sugars, phenolic content, vitamins C and A, and oil content at this optimal cobalt level. However, higher concentrations (20 mg L⁻¹) led to a slight decline in some metrics, suggesting a potential toxicity threshold. The composition of essential oils also improved with cobalt treatment, with significant increases in key components such as α -pinene, camphene, and fenchone. These findings demonstrate that cobalt supplementation at 16 mg L⁻¹ can significantly enhance the growth, yield, and quality of sweet fennel, although excessive levels may have adverse effects. Graphical abstract

In this study, odor components were analyzed using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and solid-phase microextraction (SPME), and odor-active compounds (OACs) were identified using GC-olfactometry (GC-O). Among the volatile compounds identified through GC-O, p-anisaldehyde, limonene, estragole, anethole, and trans-anethole elicit the fennel odor. In particular, trans-anethole showed the highest odor intensity and content. Changes in body weight during the experimental period showed decreasing values of fennel essential oil (FEO)-inhaled groups, with both body fat and visceral fat showing decreased levels. An improvement in the body’s lipid metabolism was observed, as indicated by the increased levels of cholesterol and triglycerides and decreased levels of insulin in the FEO-inhaled groups compared to group H. Furthermore, the reduction in systolic blood pressure and pulse through the inhalation of FEO was confirmed. Our results indicated that FEO inhalation affected certain lipid metabolisms and cardiovascular health, which are obesity-related dysfunction indicators. Accordingly, this study can provide basic research data for further research as to protective applications of FEO, as well as their volatile profiles.

In this study, the anaesthetic effects of fennel and anise essential oils were investigated on common carp. Fish (10 ± 0.45 g) were exposed to nine concentrations of essential oils (5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 300, 400 and 500 mg L−1). Additionally, the histopathological effects on the fish tissues including gill, skin and hepatopancreas and physiological effects on some blood parameters (Na+, K+, Ca+2, Cl−, total plasma protein and glucose) of essential oils were investigated in carp. At the end of the experiment, fennel oil showed an anaesthetic effect at a concentration of 500 mg L−1 in carp (anaesthesia induction and recovery times were 308 and 472 s, respectively). Anise essential oil showed deep anaesthesia at a concentration of 100 mg L−1, but anaesthesia induction time was found to be very long (20 min). In addition, anise oil at concentrations above 100 mg L−1 caused 10% mortality in fish. Blood parameters except glucose level in both essential oils were unchanged during deep anaesthesia in carp. However, plasma glucose levels were found lower in fish anaesthetized with anise oil than control and fennel groups (P < 0.05). At the histopathological examination, no pathological findings were observed in any organ of fish in the fennel group. However, severe hyperemia and inflammatory cell infiltrations in gills, erosive lesions in the skin and slight inflammatory reactions in the skin were observed in the anise group. The present study demonstrated that fennel essential oil at 500 mg L−1 concentration can be used as an effective and safe anaesthetic in common carp, but anise essential oil is not suitable.

This study investigates the ecological interaction between honeybees ( Apis mellifera ) and fennel ( Foeniculum vulgare ) plants, examining the mutual benefits of this relationship. Field experiments conducted in Egypt from December 2022 to May 2023 recorded diverse insect pollinators attracted to fennel flowers, especially honeybees. Assessing honeybee colonies near fennel fields showed improvements in sealed brood (357.5–772.5 cells), unsealed brood (176.3–343.8 cells), pollen collection (53.25–257.5 units), honey accumulation (257.5–877.5 units), and colony strength (7.75–10) over three weeks. Fennel exposure explained 88–99% of variability in foraging metrics. Comparing open versus self-pollinated fennel revealed enhanced attributes with bee pollination, including higher flower age (25.67 vs 19.67 days), more seeds per umbel (121.3 vs 95.33), bigger seeds (6.533 vs 4.400 mm), heavier seeds (0.510 vs 0.237 g/100 seeds), and increased fruit weight per umbel (0.619 vs 0.226 g). Natural variation in seed color and shape also occurred. The outcomes demonstrate the integral role of honeybees in fennel agroecosystems through efficient pollination services that improve crop productivity and quality. Fennel provides abundant nutritional resources that bolster honeybee colony health. This research elucidates the symbiotic bee-fennel relationship, underscoring mutualistic benefits and the importance of ecological conservation for sustainable agriculture.

The objective of this study was to examine the direct effects of the medicinal plant fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) on basic functions of ovarian cells, including proliferation, apoptosis, and response to the physiological hormonal stimulator, ghrelin. In the first series of experiments, porcine ovarian granulosa cells were cultured with (1, 10, 100 µg/ml) or without fennel extract. In the second series of experiments, cells were cultured with (1, 10, 100 ng/ml) or without ghrelin, alone or in combination with fennel extract (10 µg/ml). Expression of the proliferation marker, PCNA, and the apoptosis marker, bax, were analyzed via quantitative immunocytochemical methods. Fennel stimulated the accumulation of the proliferation marker, and suppressed the expression of the apoptosis marker. Ghrelin alone promoted proliferation and apoptosis of ovarian cells. The presence of fennel inhibited these ghrelin effects. These observations provide the first demonstration of (1) effects of fennel on farm animal reproduction, (2) direct effects of fennel on ovarian cells, (3) the ability of fennel to promote ovarian cell proliferation, to inhibit ovarian cell apoptosis, and to enhance the ovarian cell proliferation:apoptosis ratio. Furthermore, our results (4) confirm the involvement of ghrelin in the control of ovarian cell apoptosis and proliferation, and (5) demonstrate the ability of fennel to affect not only ovarian cell proliferation and apoptosis, but also to suppress the responses of ovarian cells to the upstream hormonal regulator ghrelin. Our results indicate the potential applicability of fennel as a bio-stimulator of farm animal reproduction.

Hyadaphis foeniculi (Passerini) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) is a cosmopolitan species and the main pest of fennel in northeastern Brazil. Understanding the relationship between temperature variations and the population growth rates of H. foeniculi is essential to predict the population dynamics of this aphid in the fennel crop. The aim of this study was to measure the effect of constant temperature on the adult prereproductive period and the life table fertility parameters (infinitesimal increase ratio (rm), gross reproduction rate (GRR), net reproduction rate (R0), finite increase ratio (λ), generation time (GT), the time required for the population to double in the number of individuals (DT), and the reproduction value (RVx)) of the fennel pest H. foeniculi. The values of lx (survival of nymphs at age x) increased as the temperature rose from 15 to 28°C and fell at 30°C, whereas mx (number of nymphs produced by each nymph of age x) increased from 15 to 25°C and fell at 28 and 30°C. The net reproduction rates (R0) of populations of H. foeniculi increased with temperature and ranged from 1.9 at 15°C to 12.23 at 28°C for each generation. The highest population increase occurred with the apterous aphids at 28°C. The rate of population increase per unit time (rm) (day) ranged from 0.0033 (15°C) to 0.1995 (28°C). The highest values of rm were recorded at temperatures of 28°C and 30°C. The rm values were a good fit to the models tested, with R2 > 0.91 and R2adj > 0.88. The models tested (Davidson, Sharpe and DeMichele modified by Schoolfield et al., Logan et al., Lamb, and Briere et al.) were very good fits for the rm values observed, with R2 > 0.91 and R2adj > 0.88. The only exception was the Davidson model. Of the parameters studied, the reproductive capacity was higher in the apterous aphids, with the unique exception of daily fecundity at 28°C, which was higher in the alate aphids of H. foeniculi. Parameters relating to the age-specific fertility table for H. foeniculi were heavily influenced by temperature, with the highest biotic potential and population growth capacity found at 34°C. Therefore, the results obtained in this study could be of practical significance for predicting outbreaks of fennel aphids and improving the management of this aphid in fennel crops.