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PurposeThe study investigates the latent shortcomings of projects implemented under the force account approach. The study offers implications to the policymakers, practitioners and society at large for the effective and efficient application of the force account method in construction projects.Design/methodology/approachThe study adopted an explanatory sequential mixed method of which the quantitative data were collected first and then analysis was performed. Then, the results of quantitative data were used to plan for the collection of qualitative data. The quantitative data were collected from performance audit report while the qualitative data were collected using semi-structured interviews.FindingsThe study identified six (6) general latent shortcomings and twenty-one (21) detailed latent shortcomings. The general latent shortcomings were inadequate planning and designing of the project; inappropriate adhering to the procurement procedures for materials; inadequate contract supervision; lack of qualified personnel to execute and supervise the works; lack of appropriate equipment and tools; and improper recording of cost of materials, labour and overheads in the books of accounts.Research limitations/implicationsThe research focused on the force account construction approach as applied in the Tanzania context.Practical implicationsThe research stresses that policymakers and practitioners are required to evaluate critically the scope and application of the force account mechanism. The force account procedures should be made based on the nature, scope, magnitude and thresholds of the project. The procuring organisations should ensure that the cost–benefit analysis is undertaken before implementing the force account projects. The findings of this study can be used as inputs to the present laws, regulations and guidelines related to the force account projects.Social implicationsThe present study has the potentials to the communities of which force account projects are undertaken. It stresses that the force account method offers employments opportunity to the social communities.Originality/valueThe study has identified the latent shortcomings of the projects implemented under the force account method. This topic has received attention in Tanzania and developing countries. The study can be credited for its implications to policymakers, practitioners and communities including its emphasis on conducting a cost–benefit analysis.

While previous studies have shown mixed results regarding the impact of human resource (HR) recruitment on construction project outcomes, they are limited in explaining the mechanisms through which HR recruitment influences construction project performance. The current study examines the influence of HR recruitment on the cost performance of force account construction projects, while also investigating the mediating effect of quality performance. The hypothesized model was established and empirically tested using partial least squares structural equation modeling. Data were collected from 192 force account construction projects through structured questionnaires administered to local contractors in surveyed local government authorities in Tanzania. The results reveal a positive and significant influence of HR recruitment on project cost performance. Furthermore, quality performance mediates the link between HR recruitment and cost performance. The study contributes to the limited literature on HR recruitment and construction project performance by highlighting the need for construction companies to customize their recruitment practices to align with their unique situations and needs. The findings provide practical implications to construction practitioners to enhance HR practices towards improving quality performance, which, in turn, strengthens the cost performance of force account construction projects. Additionally, the study can help policymakers develop guidelines on HR recruitment practices to ensure higher quality and cost performance in force account construction projects.

This paper examines the moderating effect of social capital in the relationship between compensation and time performance of force account projects. Data were collected from 192 force account projects in selected local government authorities in Tanzania, where contractors participated in filling out structured questionnaires. The study employed partial least squares structural equation modelling to examine the hypothesized relationships. The findings indicate that compensation has a positive and significant effect on-time performance of force account projects. On the other hand, social capital negatively moderates the relationship between compensation and time performance, such that at high levels of social capital, the effect of compensation on time performance diminishes compared to lower levels. Therefore, the study offers intriguing insights into the negative effect of social capital on the relationship between compensation and time performance in the context of force account projects. This study makes a distinct contribution to the academic field by examining the moderating effect of social capital on the relationship between laborers' compensation and time performance within the context of force account projects, a relatively neglected area in existing literature. While effective compensation practices are crucial for enhancing performance, the presence of social capital as a moderator impedes the positive effects of compensation in these projects. Future studies could further explore the complex dynamics between compensation, social capital, and time performance across different contexts and industries.

The study investigated the moderating effect of staff competency on the influence of communication on the effectiveness of force account approach (FAA) in construction projects in Tanzania. This study proposed three hypotheses, which were tested by using PROCESS macro from data obtained from 229 members of projects under FAA in local government authorities (LGAs) in Dodoma, Tanzania. The findings unveiled that communication and staff competency contribute in a meaningful manner in influencing the effectiveness of FAA in construction projects. Lastly, the study established a moderating effect of staff competency in the relationship between communication and the effectiveness of FAA. Based on the main findings, it was concluded that communication and staff competency are significant factors for the FAA effectiveness in construction projects in LGAs. Furthermore, the role of communication on the effectiveness of FAA in construction projects varies across different values of staff competency, with a stronger influence when staff competency is high compared to when it is low. Therefore, staff competency strengthens the influence of communication on the effectiveness of FAA. Despite its limitations, our study provides significant implications for practice and theory.

Currently, there is an increasing focus on procurement contract administration as among of the key variables in explaining the performance of construction projects. Despite such observations, their relationship with quality attainment of the Force Account (FA) construction projects is not well postulated to cement the observed causal relationship. Therefore, this study assesses the role of procurement contract administration in the quality attainment of FA construction projects in Local Government Authorities (LGAs) in Tanzania. The study employed a cross-sectional research design, and data was collected by using structured questionnaires from primary schools in Dodoma, Tanzania. The study used 318 respondents to analyse data by using Partial least square structural equitation modelling (PLS-SEM). The findings of the study reveal that risk management, relationship management, dispute management, and monitoring and control are positive and significant factors in explaining the quality attainment of FA construction projects. Notably, risk management is the strongest predictor of quality attainment of FA construction projects. It was concluded that the quality attainment of FA construction projects is highly influenced by procurement contract administration. These findings have practical implications, as procurement practitioners and FA committees can use them to make decisions concerning the quality attainment of the projects through the implementation of procurement contract administration practices.

It remains unclear to what extent shifts in gender attitudes are products of changes in micro-level characteristics, macro-level social transformations, or net cohort and period transitions. We test these questions on 20 waves of data from the General Social Survey, 1977–2016 (N = 45,125). Compositional change in individual characteristics accounts for almost 78 percent of the cohort variation in gender attitudes, but only 32 percent of the historical transformations. Macro dynamics are responsible for an additional 60 percent of the historical change in gender attitudes. Two structural forces are associated with historical transitions in American gender attitudes: gender equality in the labor force and the rise of men’s overwork. Each of these factors accounts for a significant proportion of the period variation in gender attitudes in our analysis, and the rise of men’s overwork appears to account for the puzzle of the “stalled revolution” in the 1990s and its “restart” in the mid-2000s. The conservative swing in 1994–2004 correlates with the rise of overwork, as the proportion of men who overwork soared during this period when traditional gender roles were reinforced.

The classical view of muscles as independent motors has been challenged over the past decades. An alternative view has emerged in which muscles are not isolated but embedded in a three-dimensional connective tissue network that links them to adjacent muscles and other non-muscular structures in the body. Animal studies showing that the forces measured at the distal and proximal ends of a muscle are not equal have provided undisputable evidence that these connective tissue linkages are strong enough to serve as an extra pathway for muscular force transmission. In this historical review, we first introduce the terminology and anatomy related to these pathways of muscle force transmission and provide a definition for the term epimuscular force transmission. We then focus on important experimental evidence indicating mechanical interactions between synergistic muscles that may affect force transmission and/or influence the muscles’ force generating capacity. We illustrate that there may exist different expressions of the highly relevant force–length properties depending on whether the force is measured at the proximal or distal tendon and depending on the dynamics of surrounding structures. Changes in length, activation level or disruption of the connective tissue of neighboring muscles, can affect how muscles interact and produce force on the skeleton. While most direct evidence is from animal experiments, studies on humans also suggest functional implications of the connective tissues surrounding muscles. These implications may explain how distant segments, which are not part of the same joint system, affect force generation at a given joint, and, in clinical conditions, explain observations from tendon transfer surgeries, where a muscle transferred to act as an antagonist continues to produce agonistic moments.

There has been an exponential surge in reports on two-dimensional (2D) materials ever since the discovery of graphene in 2004. Transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) are a class of 2D materials where weak van der Waals force binds individual covalently bonded X–M–X layers (where M is the transition metal and X is the chalcogen), making layer-controlled synthesis possible. These individual building blocks (single-layer TMDs) transition from indirect to direct band gaps and have fascinating optical and electronic properties. Layer-dependent opto-electrical properties, along with the existence of finite band gaps, make single-layer TMDs superior to the well-known graphene that paves the way for their applications in many areas. Ultra-fast response, high on/off ratio, planar structure, low operational voltage, wafer scale synthesis capabilities, high surface-to-volume ratio, and compatibility with standard fabrication processes makes TMDs ideal candidates to replace conventional semiconductors, such as silicon, etc., in the new-age electrical, electronic, and opto-electronic devices. Besides, TMDs can be potentially utilized in single molecular sensing for early detection of different biomarkers, gas sensors, photodetector, and catalytic applications. The impact of COVID-19 has given rise to an upsurge in demand for biosensors with real-time detection capabilities. TMDs as active or supporting biosensing elements exhibit potential for real-time detection of single biomarkers and, hence, show promise in the development of point-of-care healthcare devices. In this review, we provide a historical survey of 2D TMD-based biosensors for the detection of bio analytes ranging from bacteria, viruses, and whole cells to molecular biomarkers via optical, electronic, and electrochemical sensing mechanisms. Current approaches and the latest developments in the study of healthcare devices using 2D TMDs are discussed. Additionally, this review presents an overview of the challenges in the area and discusses the future perspective of 2D TMDs in the field of biosensing for healthcare devices.

This paper provides a new theory of international capital flows. In a framework that integrates factor-proportions-based trade and financial capital flows, a novel force emerges: capital tends to flow toward countries that become more specialized in capital-intensive industries. This \"composition\" effect competes with the standard force that channels capital toward the location where it is scarcer. If the composition effect dominates, capital flows away from the country hit by a positive labor force/productivity shock—a flow \"reversal.\" Extended to a quantitative framework, the model generates sizable current account imbalances between developing and developed countries broadly consistent with the data.

This paper surveys the academic and policy debate on the origins of global imbalances, their prospects after the global crisis, and their policy implications. A conventional view of global imbalances considers them to primarily result from macroeconomic policies and cyclical forces that cause demand for goods to outstrip supply in the United States and other rich countries and that have the opposite effect in major emerging markets. An alternative view holds that global imbalances are the result of structural distortions and slow-changing factors that primarily affect assets markets. This paper reviews the analytical underpinnings of these two perspectives and the empirical evidence of their respective merits. The paper then assesses the outlook for global imbalances after the crisis, particularly in terms of policy action to reduce their magnitude. Policy intervention is warranted to the extent that the imbalances are driven by welfare-reducing distortions, but in this case, the primary target of policy intervention should be the distortions rather than the imbalances. Finally, the paper examines various forms of international spillovers that may call for multilateral action to limit global imbalances.