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"Forest communities"
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Multiple successional pathways and precocity in forest development: can some forests be born complex?
Background: In forests subject to stand-replacing disturbances, conventional models of succession typically overlook early-seral stages as a simple re-organization/establishment period. These models treat structural development in essentially 'relay floristic' terms, with structural complexity (three-dimensional heterogeneity) developing primarily in old-growth stages, only after a closedcanopy 'self-thinning' phase and subsequent canopy gap formation. However, is it possible that early-successional forests can sometimes exhibit spatial complexity similar to that in old-growth forests — i.e. akin to an 'initial floristic' model of structural development? Hypothesis: Based on empirical observations, we present a hypothesis regarding an important alternative pathway in which protracted or sparse forest establishment and interspecific competition thin out tree densities early on — thereby precluding overstorey canopy closure or a traditionally defined self-thinning phase. Although historically viewed as an impediment to stand development, we suggest this process may actually advance certain forms of structural complexity. These young stands can exhibit qualities typically attributed only to old forests, including: (1) canopy gaps associated with clumped and widely spaced tree stems; (2) vertically heterogeneous canopies including under- and midstories, albeit lower stature; (3) co-existence of shade-tolerant and intolerant species; and (4) abundant dead wood. Moreover, some of these qualities may persist through succession, meaning that a significant portion of eventual old-growth spatial pattern may already be determined in this early stage. Implications: The relative frequency of this open-canopy pathway, and the degree to which precocious complexity supports functional complexity analogous to that of old forests, are largely unknown due to the paucity of naturally regenerating forests in many regions. Nevertheless, recognition of this potential is important for the understanding and management of early-successional forests.
Journal Article
Shifting Forests and Carbon: Linking Community Composition and Aboveground Carbon Attributes
Forest communities—assemblages of tree species at stand- to landscape-scales—vary in their capacity to capture and store carbon, but previous attempts using discrete forest types to quantify this relationship often fail to consider gradual changes to the seedling, live tree, and standing dead tree demographic components of the community. We analyzed two decades of plot remeasurements (20,680 remeasurements of 5594 unique plots) from the United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) Program across the Great Lakes region of the eastern U.S. to assess shifts in forest communities using Latent Dirichlet Allocation, a continuous model of forest community composition. We tested for links between aboveground live and standing dead tree carbon dynamics and shifts in community composition (the relative proportion of different communities within a stand) of three demographic components (seedlings < 2.54 cm, live trees ≥ 2.54 cm, and standing dead trees ≥ 2.54 cm). Live tree carbon varied across six unique communities ranging from 5.2 Mg C ha−1 (SE = 0.77 Mg C ha−1) in the spruce-tamarack community to 88.4 Mg C ha−1 (SE = 0.65 Mg C ha−1) in the sugar maple-basswood community. On average, forests contained less standing dead tree carbon (2.2 Mg C ha−1) than live tree carbon (40.4 Mg C ha−1), because of lower stem density and fewer species of standing dead trees. Both live and standing dead tree carbon increased over time across the study area (on average 0.274 and 0.045 Mg C ha−1 year−1, respectively). Remeasurements of FIA plots revealed that shifts in community composition of the live and standing dead demographic components were associated with decreases in live tree carbon. Conversely, larger degree of divergence between the community composition of the live and standing dead demographic components and shifts in stand structure between remeasurements (mean, variance, and skewness of the live tree diameter distribution) were associated with increases in live tree carbon. Shifts in stand structure were significant yet weaker predictors of standing dead tree carbon dynamics. Instead, shifts in community composition of the standing dead component over time and degree of divergence between the community composition of the live tree and standing dead tree components were more closely linked to changes in standing dead tree carbon stocks. The effects of shifting communities on carbon dynamics are important for understanding carbon cycling in forests and management under continued climate change.
Journal Article
At loggerheads? : agricultural expansion, poverty reduction, and environment in the tropical forests
Despite the vast number of books and reports on tropical deforestation, there's confusion about the causes of forest loss and forest poverty, and the effectiveness of policy responses. At Loggerheads seeks to describe ways to reconciles pressures for agricultural expansion in the tropics with the urgent needs for both forest conservation and poverty alleviation. It diagnoses the causes and impacts of forest loss and the reasons for the association of forests and poverty. It looks at how policies - modulated by local conditions - act simultaneously on deforestation and poverty, creating tradeoffs or complementarities, depending on the situation. The report brings to the surface problems that impede adoption of favourable policies, describing institutional and technological innovations that might help overcome these impediments.
eBook
rainforests of Cameroon
In 1994, the Government of Cameroon introduced an array of forest policy reforms, both regulatory and market-based, to support a more organized, transparent, and sustainable system for accessing and using forest resources. This report describes how these reforms played out in the rainforests of Cameroon. The intention is to provide a brief account of a complex process and identify what worked, what did not, and what can be improved. The barriers to placing Cameroon's forests at the service of its people, its economy, and the environment originated with the extractive policies of successive colonial administrations. The barriers were further consolidated after independence through a system of political patronage and influence in which forest resources became a coveted currency for political support. These deeply entangled commercial and political interests have only recently, and reluctantly, started to diverge. In 1994, the government introduced an array of forest policy reforms, both regulatory and market based. The reforms changed the rules determining who could gain access to forest resources, how access could be obtained, how those resources could be used, and who will benefit from their use. This report assesses the outcomes of reforms in forest-rich areas of Cameroon, where the influence of industrial and political elites has dominated since colonial times.
eBook
Balancing Conservation and Livelihoods
Forest-dependent communities in the tropics typically rank lower in socioeconomic status than agricultural and urban communities, and improving livelihood choices while protecting forest resources can be a difficult task. Conflicts can arise where biodiversity conservation objectives restrict resource access to forest communities. In this study, we investigate how land cover, land use, and protected area management affects communities around a forest reserve in the Philippines. We conduct a socioeconomic analysis at two scales: a municipal-level analysis relating land use to socioeconomic status, and a community-level analysis contrasting villages that are close to and distant from a protected forest area. While forest-dependent communities generally had fewer amenities and infrastructure than agricultural and urban communities, community-level analysis showed that socioeconomic status was higher in areas close to protected areas. The study provides a counter-example to other findings by showing that access to resources improves socioeconomic status for local communities while maintaining environmental protections. We conclude that incorporating local livelihoods into forest conservation strategies, such as collection of non-timber forest product, results in a measure of sustainability, which in turn has a significant positive impact on the socioeconomic well-being of communities near the protected area.
Journal Article
Land cover changes and carbon storage before and after community forestry program in Bleberan village, Gunungkidul, Indonesia, 1999-2018
This study investigated the land cover changes, carbon storage dynamics and their underlying socio-economic processes before and after a community forest permit in Bleberan village, Gunungkidul, Indonesia, during 1999-2018. We used a combination of the forest canopy density model, carbon conversion and socio-economic related data to analyze land cover classes in the periods of 1999-2003, 2003-2009, and 2009-2018, representing the phases of several years before community forestry permit, initial phase of community forestry establishment and several years after community forestry permit, respectively. Results showed that at baseline (1999), where illegal logging was started on the ground, the condition of the 40 ha investigated area was dominated by non-forest in the form of open land by 54% with an amounted carbon storage of 1352.62 ton. In the phase of before community forestry permit (1999-2003), when there was continuous illegal logging, the open land rise quickly achieved to 83%, with only 312.09 ton of carbon storage remaining. In the initial phase of community forestry establishment (2003-2009), when the government issued a legalization of community forest, the mixed dryland agriculture shifted to dominate the area by 55%, with the carbon storage being increased to 1840.94 ton. The last phase, several years after community forestry permit (2009-2018), which characterized by active engagement of the community in forest rehabilitation, the area was altered to fully stocked teak plantation forest by 82%, with a carbon storage enhancement of 3379.16 ton or two times higher than that at baseline. Such results are important for the forest community authority and related stakeholder for designing appropriate forest-related policies and supporting REDD + implementation.
Journal Article
The Place of Community Forest Management in the REDD+ Landscape
Community forest management (CFM) is identified by many actors as a core strategy for reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries (REDD+). Others however see REDD+ as a danger to CFM. In response to these contrasting views, we carried out a systematic review of CFM case studies to look at CFM’s potential role in achieving forest carbon benefits and social co-benefits for forest communities. We evaluated the potential impacts of REDD+ on CFM. Our review showed that there is strong evidence of CFM’s role in reducing degradation and stabilizing forested landscapes; however, the review also showed less evidence about the role of CFM in reducing deforestation. For social benefits, we found that CFM contributes to livelihoods, but its effect on poverty reduction may be limited. Also, CFM may not deal adequately with the distribution of benefits within communities or user groups. These insights are important for CFM-based REDD+ intervention; measures should be adopted to overcome these gaps. Innovative incentive structures to existing CFM are discussed. The recognition of rights for forest communities is one first step identified in promoting CFM. We call for sound empirical impact evaluations that analyze CFM and CFM-based REDD+ interventions by looking at both biophysical and social outcomes.
Journal Article
Evaluating Community Forest User Groups (CFUGs)’ Performance in Managing Community Forests: A Case Study in Central Nepal
The community forests (CF) in Nepal, facilitated by Community Forest User Groups (CFUGs), is widely recognized as an effective model of community-based forest management. Despite this recognition, there is a notable lack of comprehensive studies assessing the performance of CFUGs in sustaining community forests. Addressing this gap, this study examined twenty-two indicators across five performance criteria, such as user group management, forest management, financial management, livelihood management, and collaboration and networking management, within four CFUGs in central Nepal. Data were collected through household surveys (n = 275) and focus group discussions (n = 4), and indicators of performance criteria were assessed using a Likert scale. Reliability was measured using the coefficient of Cronbach’s alpha. ANOVA was employed to compare mean performance criteria across the four CFUGs, providing an evaluative perspective on overall CFUG performance. The findings underscored collaboration and networking management as high performers, showing an index value of 0.71, while user group management exhibited moderate performance with an index value of 0.56, alongside other moderately performing criteria. Noteworthy disparities were evident across the four performance criteria (p < 0.01), with the exception of collaboration and network management. Approximately 55% of the indicators were rated low to moderate, revealing CFUGs’ deficiencies in regular functions, limited uptake of adaptive and market-oriented management practices, minimal contributions to biodiversity conservation, insufficient capacity for forest revenue generation and mobilization, and restricted income generation and benefit-sharing with communities. The absence of timely and pertinent actions further stifled interaction between CFUGs and community forests, undermining the potential for revenue generation, job creation, and collective actions essential for productive community forest management. Prioritization of the indicators based on the performance index value offers critical policy direction to ensure CFUG sustainability and augment participatory management of common pool resources. Strategies to address identified weaknesses and build on strengths are essential for the success of Nepal’s community forests.
Journal Article
Ash Dieback and Its Impact in Near-Natural Forest Remnants – A Plant Community-Based Inventory
Temperate European forests are currently largely under attack by the infection with
, a fungal pathogen introduced from Asia since at least the early 1990s and causing a major dieback of common ash (
) throughout Europe. At present, ash dieback evokes major problems for forestry, in particular in sensitive forest remnants in Northern Germany, where the disease causes serious concerns for ecosystem conservation. This makes ash dieback a focal area of ecological research. In the present study, we quantified the extent of ash dieback in adult and in young ash trees in Northern Schleswig-Holstein, Germany, in relation to community composition and associated biotic and abiotic factors. Data collection was carried out in 37 plots in communities of ash-rich forests and included floristic inventory, rating of adult and young ash individuals and recording of light and soil conditions. Data were analyzed using non-metric multidimensional scaling and general linear mixed effects models. Forest type was the strongest significant predictor for variation in crown defoliation of adult ash trees. Damage was highest in communities of wet alder-ash forests and lowest in ash-rich beech forests. A further significant predictor of adult crown defoliation was individual height of the ash tree with larger trees being less affected than smaller ones. For juveniles, total species richness displayed a significant positive relationship with the proportional abundance of fungal infection, while the mean damage proportion per individual significantly increased with increasing relative light intensity in the understorey. The study clearly shows a strong relationship between forest type and ecosystem vulnerability to ash dieback. In particular, communities belonging to the species-rich wet alder-ash forests were most severely affected by ash disease, thereby deserving special attention among the vulnerable fragmented forest remnants in Schleswig-Holstein. Co-varying factors, however, seem to differ between juvenile and adult trees, hinting at the relative importance of tree performance for the adult trees and abiotic conditions for the juveniles. Accounting for such differences along a larger ecological gradient of ash forest communities will be necessary to more comprehensively understand effects of ash dieback on the ecosystem and needs to be addressed in future research.
Journal Article