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Background Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.) Vahl is a valuable ornamental and medicinal plant. Although the nuclear and chloroplast genomes of F. suspensa have been published, its complete mitochondrial genome sequence has yet to be reported. In this study, the genomic DNA of F. suspensa yellowish leaf material was extracted, sequenced by using a mixture of Illumina Novaseq6000 short reads and Oxford Nanopore PromethION long reads, and the sequencing data were assembled and annotated. Result The F. suspensa mitochondrial genome was obtained in the length of 535,692 bp with a circular structure, and the GC content was 44.90%. The genome contains 60 genes, including 36 protein-coding genes, 21 tRNA genes, and three rRNA genes. We further analyzed RNA editing of the protein-coding genes, relative synonymous codon usage, and sequence repeats based on the genomic data. There were 25 homologous sequences between F. suspensa mitochondria and chloroplast genome, which involved the transfer of 8 mitochondrial genes, and 9473 homologous sequences between mitochondrial and nuclear genomes. Analysis of the nucleic acid substitution rate, nucleic acid diversity, and collinearity of protein-coding genes of the F. suspensa mitochondrial genome revealed that the majority of genes may have undergone purifying selection, exhibiting a slower rate of evolution and a relatively conserved structure. Analysis of the phylogenetic relationships among different species revealed that F. suspensa was most closely related to Olea europaea subsp. Europaea. Conclusion In this study, we sequenced, assembled, and annotated a high-quality F. suspensa mitochondrial genome. The results of this study will enrich the mitochondrial genome data of Forsythia , lay a foundation for the phylogenetic development of Forsythia , and promote the evolutionary analysis of Oleaceae species.

This study evaluated the potential impact of climate change on the distribution of Forsythia suspensa , a valuable traditional Chinese medicinal plant, using the MaxEnt model integrated with Geographic Information System (GIS). By analyzing occurrence data from various databases and environmental variables including climate and soil factors, we forecasted the present and future (2050s and 2070s) habitat suitability of F. suspensa under different greenhouse gas emission scenarios (RCP8.5, RCP4.5, RCP2.6). Results indicated that the suitable habitats for F. suspensa were primarily located in North, East, Central, Northwest, and Southwest China, with a significant potential expansion of suitable habitats anticipated by the 2070s, particularly under the high emission scenario. The study identified precipitation and temperature as the primary environmental drivers impacting the distribution of F. suspensa . Furthermore, a northward shift in the centroid of suitable habitats under future climate scenarios suggested a potential migration response to global warming. This work provides crucial insights into the future conservation and cultivation strategies for F. suspensa amidst changing climatic conditions.

Forsythia suspensa leaf fermented tea (FSLFT) is made from tender buds of Forsythia suspensa collected in spring. The main active components of FSLFT include forsythiaside, forsythia ester glycoside, rutin, and forsythia flavonoids, which have antibacterial, antioxidant, liver-protective, and immune-regulatory effects. Oxidative stress can trigger excessive apoptosis in intestinal epithelial cells, leading to dysfunction of the small intestinal mucosa and impaired intestinal absorption. This study focused on Kunming mice as research subjects and used hydrogen peroxide as an inducer to investigate the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of FSLFT in vivo, as well as its regulatory effects on the intestinal microbiota of mice. The aim of this study was to establish a theoretical foundation for the functional study of Forsythia suspensa leaves and provide specific recommendations for their growth and application. The results showed that H 2 O 2 treatment led to an increase in oxidative levels in mice. FSLFT has been shown to have antioxidant effects via the Redox Factor-1(Ref-1)/ hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha (HIF-1α) pathway, reduce inflammation caused by hydrogen peroxide through the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) signaling pathway, and protect mouse colons from oxidative stress by repairing gut microbiota imbalance and increasing microbial diversity and abundance. These findings establish a theoretical basis for studying the functional properties of FSLFT.

Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.) Vahl is a self-incompatible, heterostylous plant with style-length dimorphism. Heterostyly is a unique flower polymorphism in dioecious angiosperms. Previous research has demonstrated that in heterostylous species like Primula and Turnera , brassinosteroids (BRs) regulate style length. However, the regulatory mechanism of F. suspensa heterostyly remains poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the morphological and cytological differences between the long (L) and short (S) morphs of F. suspensa . We measured the amounts of Teasterone (TE), Typhasterol (TY), Castasterone (CS), and Brassinolide (BL) in the styles. Furthermore, we used topical treatment of the BR inhibitor propiconazole (PPZ) to investigate its impact on style elongation. To clarify the function of BRs in controlling style length, we identified key genes and evaluated their expression levels by analyzing the transcriptome data of F. suspensa . Our findings show that, in contrast to the S-morph, the L-morph shows significant elongation from the flower bud scale abscission phase to the dew corolla phase. L-morph styles have a much higher castasterone level than S-morph styles, and treatment with propiconazole, an inhibitor of BR production, prevents style elongation in the L-morph. Furthermore, transcriptome analysis revealed that the putative orthologous gene of TCH4 , a BR-responsive gene, exhibits higher expression in the L-morph compared to S-morph. These findings support the role of BRs as regulators of distinct style lengths in F. suspensa. Additionally, we found that EVM0011396 gene (annotated as FsCYP749A22 ), encoding a putative BR-degrading enzyme, shows increased expression during S-morph style development, with significantly higher expression in S-morph styles compared to L-morph styles. In contrast, the expression level of EVM0028947 (annotated as FsCYP90D1 ) coding for a BR biosynthesis gene, is higher in L-morph styles compared to S-morph styles. The expression patterns of EVM0028947 and EVM0011396 suggest their involvement in BR homeostasis in F. suspensa styles. This study provides insight into the molecular mechanism underlying the heterostyly of F. suspensa and lays the foundation for further exploration of this phenomenon.

leaves (FSL), a traditional Chinese ethnomedicinal herbal material used to prepare health-promoting infusions and pharmacologically noted for their robust anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and broad-spectrum antiviral activities, nevertheless have an as-yet-uncharacterized molecular mechanism of action against human adenovirus (HAdV). Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with Q-Exactive Orbitrap mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-Exactive-Orbitrap/MS) was employed to identification of FSL components. Publicly available GEO datasets were mined to identify HAdV-associated differentially expressed genes (DEGs). An integrated analysis of GEO datasets and network pharmacology to predict the key molecular targets of FSL flavonoids against HAdV. Ensemble molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations assessed the stability of flavonoid-protein interactions. In vitro antiviral assays quantified FSL's effect on HAdV replication, viral gene expression, and E1A protein levels. Flow cytometry and RT-qPCR examined cell cycle distribution and expression of cell-cycle regulators. Thirty-nine active components were identified in FSL, predominantly organic acids, terpenoids, flavonoids, and lignans. An integrated analysis of GEO data revealed 990 adenovirus-associated DEGs, with network pharmacology and functional enrichment analyses further demonstrating FSL flavonoids' preferential targeting of cell cycle regulators. docking and simulation confirmed the stable binding of FSL-derived flavonoids to core cell cycle proteins. , FSL inhibited HAdV replication in a dose-dependent manner, significantly reducing viral gene transcripts and E1A protein expression. Mechanistic studies demonstrated that FSL induced G2/M phase arrest, accompanied by the downregulation of expression and upregulation of , , , and expression, thereby blocking progression into S-phase and impairing viral DNA synthesis. These findings establish a pharmacological foundation for developing FSL-derived phytotherapeutics against adenoviral infections.

It is difficult to screen out as many active components as possible from natural plants all at one time. In this study, subfractions of Forsythia suspensa leaves were firstly prepared; then, their inhibitive abilities on pancreatic lipase were tested; finally, the highest inhibiting subfraction was screened by self-made immobilized pancreatic lipase. Results showed that nine ligands, including eight inhibitors and one promotor, were screened out all at one time. They were three flavonoids (rutin, IC50: 149 ± 6.0 μmol/L; hesperidin, 52.4 μmol/L; kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside, isolated from F. suspensa leaves for the first time, IC50 notably reached 2.9 ± 0.5 μmol/L), two polyphenols (chlorogenic acid, 3150 ± 120 μmol/L; caffeic acid, 1394 ± 52 μmol/L), two lignans (phillyrin, promoter; arctigenin, 2129 ± 10.5 μmol/L), and two phenethyl alcohol (forsythiaside A, 2155 ± 8.5 μmol/L; its isomer). Their action mechanisms included competitive inhibition, competitive promotion, noncompetitive inhibition, and uncompetitive inhibition. In sum, using the appropriate methods, more active ingredients can be simply and quickly screened out all at one time from a complex natural product system. In addition, F. suspensa leaves contain numerous inhibitors of pancreatic lipase.

Forsythia suspensa is a traditional Chinese medicine. The leaves of F. suspensa, specifically the dried leaves of the plant, are commonly consumed as tea in China. In this study, F. suspensa leaves triterpenoids (FLT) were isolated and purified from the dried leaves of F. suspensa, and their in vitro antitumor activity as well as associated molecular mechanisms were systematically investigated. First, the primary components of FLT were determined using high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and the results revealed ursolic acid (70.67%), oleanolic acid (16.23%), and betulinic acid (4.59%) as the major components. Next, the results of the 3‐(4,5‐dimethylthiazol‐2‐yl)‐2,5‐diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay showed that FLT exhibited strong antiproliferative activity (p < 0.05) toward human breast cancer MCF‐7 and MDA‐MB‐231 cells. Moreover, the flow cytometry detection of apoptosis using Annexin V‐fluorescein isothiocyanate/propidium iodide (Annexin V‐FITC/PI) revealed that FLT significantly induced apoptosis in MCF‐7 and MDA‐MB‐231 cells in a dose‐dependent manner (p < 0.001). Laser confocal microscopy showed that FLT was mainly located in the mitochondria and lysosome of cells. Meanwhile, after the FLT (15 μg/mL) treatment of MCF‐7 and MDA‐MB‐231 cells, the mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) (p < 0.001) and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) level (p < 0.001) were significantly reduced. Finally, western blotting demonstrated that FLT (10 and 15 μg/mL) significantly reduced B‐cell lymphoma‐2 (Bcl‐2) (p < 0.001) and cysteinyl aspartate specific proteinase‐3 (caspase‐3) protein levels (p < 0.001), but significantly increased Bcl‐2 homologous antagonist/killer (Bak) protein (p < 0.05 or p < 0.001), cleaved‐caspase‐3 protein (p < 0.001), dynamic‐related protein 1 (DRP1), and mitochondrial fission 1 protein (FIS1) levels (p < 0.01 or p < 0.001). Taken together, the results indicated that FLT promoted the apoptosis of MCF‐7 and MDA‐MB‐231 cells by activating the mitochondrial pathway. This effect may be attributed to FLT affecting the expression of the Bcl‐2 family in mitochondria by promoting DRP1 and FIS1‐mediated mitochondrial division, thereby activating the cleavage of caspase‐3 and ultimately leading to cell apoptosis. FLT has a good antiproliferative activity against breast cancer cells. FLT promoted apoptosis in MCF‐7 and MDA‐MB‐231 cells through the mitochondrial pathway. The possible mechanism is that FLT affects the expression of the mitochondrial Bcl‐2 family by promoting mitochondrial division mediated by DRP1 and FIS1, thereby activating caspase‐3 and ultimately causing apoptosis.

This experiment aims to investigate the effect of maternal diet supplemented with Forsythia suspensa extract (FSE) on the performance, antioxidant status, inflammatory responses, intestinal development, and microbial community of sows. A total of 24 gestating sows (Landrace × Yorkshire) were assigned to 2 treatments with 12 sows per treatment. From d 107 of gestation to d 21 of lactation, sows were supplemented with a basal diet as control (CON) or an FSE diet (basal diet + 100 mg/kg FSE). Compared with CON, sows fed FSE showed lower ( P < 0.05) wean-to-estrus interval, body weight loss, and higher ( P < 0.05) average daily gain of suckling piglet. Sows fed FSE had reduced ( P < 0.05) serum malondialdehyde (MDA) content and enhanced ( P < 0.05) catalase and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) contents at farrowing and weaning compared with CON. The suckling piglets of FSE-fed sows had increased ( P < 0.05) mRNA expressions of nuclear factor erythroid-2 related factor 2, heme oxygenase-1 in the liver, and lower ( P < 0.05) serum MDA content on d 0, 7, and 14 of lactation. Sows fed FSE had lower ( P < 0.05) serum tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-8 (IL-8) contents at farrowing and reduced ( P < 0.05) serum IL-6 and IL-8 contents at weaning compared with CON. Piglets from FSE-fed sows had enhanced ( P ≤ 0.05) villus height and villus height to crypt depth ratio in the jejunum, and higher ( P < 0.05) protein expression of Occludin in jejunal mucosa compared with CON. Sows fed FSE tended to have higher ( P = 0.09) relative abundance of Lactobacillus at genus level in feces at weaning compared with CON. Our results showed maternal diet supplemented with FSE in lactating sows could effectively induce improvement of performance, antioxidant status, anti-inflammatory function, intestinal morphology, barrier function, and microbial community.

This study aimed to determine the effects of Forsythia suspensa extracts (FSE) on performance, antioxidant status, inflammatory cytokines, meat quality, meat fatty acid composition, and gut microbial community in finishing pigs. Sixty-four pigs [Duroc × (Landrace × Yorkshire)] with an average initial body weight of 88.68 kg were randomly allotted to two dietary treatments, with eight replicate pens per treatment (four pens were barrows and four pens were gilts), four pigs per pen. The dietary treatments included a corn–soybean meal basal diet (CON) and an FS diet (basal diet + 100 mg/kg FSE; FS). Compared with CON, pigs fed FSE showed enhanced ( P < 0.05) saturated fatty acid (SFA)/polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) ratio, reduced ( P < 0.05) lightness, and n −6/ n −3 PUFA ratio, as well as tended to increase C20:5n3 content in the longissimus dorsi muscle. Moreover, pigs fed FSE showed decreased ( P < 0.05) serum cortisol and tumor nuclear factor-α contents, and increased ( P < 0.05) serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione peroxidase contents compared with CON. These pigs also tended to have increased serum total protein and immunoglobulin G contents, and decreased serum low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and interleukin-1β contents compared with CON. In the colon, pigs fed FSE had a higher ( P < 0.05) relative abundance of Bifidobacteriales at the order level, Lactobacillaceae and Bifidobacteriaceae at the family level, as well as Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium at the genus level compared with CON. In conclusion, dietary Forsythia suspensa extract supplementation effectively improved antioxidant status and anti-inflammatory functions, as well as modulated meat fatty acid composition, and gut microbial community in finishing pigs.

Forsythia suspensa is an important medicinal plant and traditionally applied for the treatment of inflammation, pyrexia, gonorrhea, diabetes, and so on. However, there is limited sequence and genomic information available for F. suspensa. Here, we produced the complete chloroplast genomes of F. suspensa using Illumina sequencing technology. F. suspensa is the first sequenced member within the genus Forsythia (Oleaceae). The gene order and organization of the chloroplast genome of F. suspensa are similar to other Oleaceae chloroplast genomes. The F. suspensa chloroplast genome is 156,404 bp in length, exhibits a conserved quadripartite structure with a large single-copy (LSC; 87,159 bp) region, and a small single-copy (SSC; 17,811 bp) region interspersed between inverted repeat (IRa/b; 25,717 bp) regions. A total of 114 unique genes were annotated, including 80 protein-coding genes, 30 tRNA, and four rRNA. The low GC content (37.8%) and codon usage bias for A- or T-ending codons may largely affect gene codon usage. Sequence analysis identified a total of 26 forward repeats, 23 palindrome repeats with lengths >30 bp (identity > 90%), and 54 simple sequence repeats (SSRs) with an average rate of 0.35 SSRs/kb. We predicted 52 RNA editing sites in the chloroplast of F. suspensa, all for C-to-U transitions. IR expansion or contraction and the divergent regions were analyzed among several species including the reported F. suspensa in this study. Phylogenetic analysis based on whole-plastome revealed that F. suspensa, as a member of the Oleaceae family, diverged relatively early from Lamiales. This study will contribute to strengthening medicinal resource conservation, molecular phylogenetic, and genetic engineering research investigations of this species.