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This study outlines a methodological framework for architectural heritage documentation, grounded in integrating HBIM and ontologies. The applied case study is the portal of the Sant’Andrea Fortress in Venice, designed by Michele Sanmicheli, where a top-down approach is implemented. The process begins with the typological and lexical interpretation of the components, based on historical sources and architectural treatises, and proceeds to their formalisation into parametric families and digital schedules. The resulting idealised geometries are then compared with digital survey data, enabling a calibrated alignment between the theoretical model and the existing condition.This approach moves beyond mere geometric recording, transforming the HBIM model into a semantic infrastructure capable of ensuring terminological consistency, interoperability, and opportunities for reuse. The portal of Sant’Andrea Fortress stands as an emblematic yet replicable example, particularly in comparison with other portals related to Sanmicheli’s oeuvre, validating the construction of a comparative library of cases in support of research, conservation, and the enhancement of fortified heritage.

The livelihoods of indigenous peoples, custodians of the world’s forests since time immemorial, were eroded as colonial powers claimed de jure control over their ancestral lands. The continuation of European land regimes in Africa and Asia meant that the withdrawal of colonial powers did not bring about a return to customary land tenure. Further, the growth in environmentalism has been interpreted by some as entailing conservation ahead of people. While this may be justifiable in view of devastating anthropocentric breaching of planetary boundaries, continued support for “fortress” style conservation inflicts real harm on indigenous communities and overlooks sustainable solutions to deepening climate crises. In reflecting on this issue from the perspective of colonial land tenure systems, this article highlights how ideas—the importance of individualised land ownership, cultivation, and fortress conservation—are intellectually flawed. Prevailing conservation policies, made possible by global non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and statutory donors, continue to harm indigenous peoples and their traditional territories. Drawing from the authors’ experience representing the Batwa (DRC), the Ogiek and Endorois (Kenya) and Adivasis (India) in international litigation, this paper examines the human and environmental costs associated with modern conservation approaches through this colonial lens. This article concludes by reflecting on approaches that respect environmental and human rights.

Single-year 14C sampling of a spruce log from the timber platform on which the Āraiši lake-fortress was built dates this timber exactly, by synchronization with AD 774/5 Miyake event. Dendrochronological synchronisms between the dated log and other timbers provide annual precision for the construction of the site. The felling date obtained, AD 835, is 50–60 years later than that proposed previously (Meadows and Zunde 2014) on the basis of a wiggle-match between 14C ages of decadal blocks and the IntCal13 calibration curve (Reimer et al. 2013), although the same 14C data favor a felling date in the AD 830s when wiggle-matched to IntCal20 (Reimer et al. 2020). Our results appear to confirm doubts expressed by Philippsen et al. (2022) about IntCal20 values from ca. AD 825-835.

Urbanization has led to homogenizing heritage site landscapes, and the protective measures have become disconnected from public needs. Additionally, the complex and diverse overall characteristics of heritage sites and the uneven distribution of values across different areas are related to the lack of landscape experience assessment. The “subjective + objective” cognitive evaluation and visual perception framework that adopts the Scenic Beauty Estimation Procedure-Semantic Differential (SBE–SD) method and eye-tracking analysis can compensate for the limitations of a single evaluation method by integrating quantitative and qualitative analysis. This research takes the Yi’an Fortress in Zhangpu County, Fujian Province, as the object and examines the visual experiences of different areas and types of landscapes within the Yi’an Fortress. The findings reveal several key insights: (1) Significant differences were found in the landscape experiences of different areas within the heritage site. The visual experience score of the core building area of Yi’an Fortress is (1.01) > the heritage entrance area (0.897) > the residential area (0.841) > the natural ecological area (0.784), indicating that the natural ecological area should be the focus of future protection and development efforts, with a particular emphasis on enhancing the ‘landscape aesthetic’ and ‘landscape cultural’ aspects. (2) The landscape experience scores can be used to understand the reasons for the differences in participants’ experiences of different landscapes. The architectural heritage landscape of the Yi’an Fortress scored highest in the experience evaluation due to its superior performance in terms of ‘landscape form’ factors. The cultural decorative landscape scored next, while the garden greening landscape scored the lowest, due to their poorer performance in terms of ‘landscape form’ and ‘landscape aesthetics’. (3) The eye-tracking data was consistent with the results of the subjective evaluation, validating the “subjective + objective” cognitive evaluation and visual perception framework, employing the SBE–SD method and eye-tracking analysis is a scientific and effective method for assessing the visual experience of heritage landscapes. These results provide a scientific basis for the heritage planners and managers of the Yi’an fortress to improve the landscape environment, better meet public needs, and preserve the unique character of this vital cultural resource. Furthermore, this study offers a new research method and approach for the protection of other heritage landscapes.

The Southern Song planned and constructed the Diaoyucheng Fortress at Hezhou of the Sichuan Theatre, during the 13th century. This fortress became famous for its 36-year resistance against the Mongols and the death of Möngke Khan in 1259. Based on historical documents and data from re-analysis of archaeological report and field survey, this study explores its initiation, construction and transition, to build a coherent narrative for its transformation from a hinterland transport hub during the Song-Jin War (1125–1234) to a frontier stronghold during the Song-Mongol War (1235–1279), which experiences the establishment of Zhuanban Granary in the 1130s, the construction of Xinyuguan Fort in the 1160s–1170s, the transformation into a refuge in 1240, and the expansion into the Diaoyucheng Fortress in 1243–1279. By combining spatial analysis with military history, this study discusses how the peninsular site, the “dustpan” form, and the fort cluster were formed under the influence of military strategies in different war periods and the topography in Sichuan. With the comparisons with the fortifications across Eurasia around the same period, this study illustrates this fortress epitomizes the development of knowledge system for fortification design in ancient China, especially the river defense fortress taking advantage of topography and navy.

The article is dedicated to the early medieval North-East Black Sea coastal area fortification objects systematization. As a result of the research we have revealed three types of fortress according to their spatial culture and the belonging of its components to the Byzantium culture: the classical type of fortress, the contaminated type of fortress, the guarded fortress. We have also marked architectural and compositional peculiarities of each type taking into consideration their territorial and spatial location, extensional and planning solutions, decorations and building technique. We have assumed that all the examined early medieval fortification objects belonged to the Byzantine culture.

The article describes the list and technologies of conservation and restoration works in the ballroom of the Officers' Casino in the Modlin Fortress in Nowy Dwór Mazowiecki. The history of the development of the Modlin Fortress and the site of the Officers' Casino building are traced, and the stylistic solution of the facades and interiors of the casino is characterized. The main reasons for the emergency state of the hall decor and their manifestations have been determined. The process of carrying out restoration works in the ballroom of the Officers' Casino is described in detail

There is a large number of fortifications built in Vladivostok and its suburbs. The constructions of Vladivostok Fortress are an outstanding example of fortifications and defensive architecture. The complex of Vladivostok Fortress is well-studied, but the problem is that these significant elements of the cultural landscape are gradually being destroyed. And there are several reasons for this. On the one hand, it is caused by the insufficient funding of measures to preserve the existing structures. On the other hand, there is no scientifically grounded strategy for preserving and reorganizing these constructions. There is also a demand for specific project proposals related to the reorganization and modern use of Vladivostok Fortress constructions. In the article, we consider this problem first in general theoretical terms, and then we suggest a specific proposal to reorganize fortifications on the Nazimov Peninsula in Vladivostok to turn it into the Park of Military Glory.

This study uses library research. The data used in this research is secondary data. The data collection technique is carried out by reading, studying, and recording various literature or reading materials, in the form of report documents such as the 2018 Wuna City Fortress Mapping Report by the South Sulawesi Cultural Heritage Conservation Center (BPCB), books, journals, articles, etc, that are relevant to the characteristics of the Fortress of Wuna City which will be related to the theory of the provisions of the OUV (Outstanding Universal Values) assessment by UNESCO. The result shows that the area of the Fortress of Wuna City reaches 265 Ha, so it can be categorized as a monument viz an element or structure. The result of UOV analysis (on the 2 nd criterion) shows the value of fort architecture as a strong defense system from enemy attacks. This fort is in the form of a labyrinthine tunnel, built on 2 cliff sides while the slope is between 45–90° with a maximum height of 17.48 m from the ground. On top of the fort’s wall structure, there are 23 bastions as a place to guard the royal soldiers. Apart from that, the fortress of Wuna City also shows the value of urban planning. The people of Muna have known ‘the city’ since 1538. In addition to the fort, supporting facilities that show modern knowledge today is also found in the site.

Fortification calls to mind images of high walls establishing clear lines between inside and outside and immobilizing enemies. However, even the most seemingly inert fortifications rely on subtle forms of mobility and more elaborate spatial relations. This article examines fortification as a technique of power in which warfare, the design of the built environment, and the organization of space are intertwined. Where research on fortification tends to emphasize the symbolic, sovereign aspirations of wall-building, the approach advanced here focuses on the spatial technologies and infrastructural projects of military architecture and engineering that remake space through martial means. The article follows the trajectory within military architecture by which linear fortifications became defense in depth and asks how transformations of ‘depth’ in contemporary warfare have come to integrate more complex, non-linear notions of space and time. By tracing the ways in which the curtain wall of Vauban’s bastion fortress transformed into the radar curtain, I argue that fortification constitutes a ‘becoming war’ in which ‘defensive’ war intensifies organized violence. As such, the concept of fortification proves indispensable for understanding the reinforced boundaries and delineated pathways cutting across the global space of contemporary warfare.