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Fumonisins are frequent food contaminants. The high exposure to fumonisins can cause harmful effects in humans and animals. Fumonisin B1 (FB1) is the most typical member of this group; however, the occurrence of several other derivatives has been reported. Acylated metabolites of FB1 have also been described as possible food contaminants, and the very limited data available suggest their significantly higher toxicity compared to FB1. Furthermore, the physicochemical and toxicokinetic properties (e.g., albumin binding) of acyl-FB1 derivatives may show large differences compared to the parent mycotoxin. Therefore, we tested the interactions of FB1, N-palmitoyl-FB1 (N-pal-FB1), 5-O-palmitoyl-FB1 (5-O-pal-FB1), and fumonisin B4 (FB4) with human serum albumin as well as the toxic effects of these mycotoxins on zebrafish embryos were examined. Based on our results, the most important observations and conclusions are the following: (1) FB1 and FB4 bind to albumin with low affinity, while palmitoyl-FB1 derivatives form highly stable complexes with the protein. (2) N-pal-FB1 and 5-O-pal-FB1 likely occupy more high-affinity binding sites on albumin. (3) Among the mycotoxins tested, N-pal-FB1 showed the most toxic effects on zebrafish, followed by 5-O-pal-FB1, FB4, and FB1. (4) Our study provides the first in vivo toxicity data regarding N-pal-FB1, 5-O-pal-FB1, and FB4.

Several plant pathogen Fusarium species produce fumonisins (FUMs); which can end up in food and feed and; when ingested; can exhibit harmful effects on humans and livestock. Mycotoxin intoxication by fumonisin B1 (FB1) and fumonisin B2 (FB2) can cause porcine pulmonary edema; leukoencephalomalacia in equines; esophageal cancer and birth defects by natural contamination. Herein; the occurrence of FB1 and FB2 in feedstuff (compound feed and feed ingredients) was investigated between 2011 and 2016 in South Korea. A total of 535 animal feed samples (425 compound feed samples and 110 feed ingredients) produced domestically were sampled four times between 2011 and 2016 (2011; 2012; 2014 and 2016) from feed factories in South Korea. The limit of detection (LOD) for FB1 and FB2 was 20 μg/kg and 25 μg/kg; respectively; and the limit of quantitation (LOQ) was 30 μg/kg and 35 μg/kg; respectively. The recovery range (%) was between 86.4% and 108.8%; and the relative standard deviation (RSD) (%) was 4.7–12.1%. Seven (swine feed samples) out of the 425 feed samples exceeded the European Union (EU) and South Korea commission regulations over the six-year test period; and no feed ingredients exceeded the guidelines.

Objective: The efficiency of corona discharge (CD) for detoxification of aflatoxin B1 (AB1), ochra¬toxin A (OA), and fumonisin B1 (FMB1) from poultry feeds with its influences on feed components was investigated. Materials and Methods: Feed samples were exposed to CD for six durations (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 min) at three distances (1.5, 2.5, and 3.5 cm). Mycotoxin levels were estimated by compet¬itive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and findings were substantiated by high-performance liquid chromatography. Results: AB1, OA, and FMB1 degradation percentages increased significantly (p < 0.05) with pro¬cessing times increment and distances reduction to reach values of 83.22%, 84.21%, and 84.76% at the first distance; 80.28%, 84.00%, and 84.12% at the second distance; and 68.30%, 71.74%, and 76.18% at the third distance, respectively, after 60 min of treatment. FMB1 reported the highest degradation level. Concerning CD impacts on feed composition, protein, fat, and moisture contents decreased significantly (p < 0.05). Carbohydrates and ash were not affected adversely. Depending on peroxide values estimation, fats were of good quality. Conclusion: The CD effectiveness for AB1, OA, and FMB1 detox from poultry feeds with moderate impact on the quality of feed.

Humans are chronically exposed to the mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisin B1 (FB1), as indicated by their widespread presence in foods and occasional exposure in the workplace. This exposure is confirmed by human biomonitoring (HBM) studies on (metabolites of) these mycotoxins in human matrices. We evaluated the exposure–health relationship of the mycotoxins in humans by reviewing the available literature. Since human studies did not allow the identification of unequivocal chronic health effects upon exposure to DON and FB1, the adverse outcome pathway (AOP) framework was used to structure additional mechanistic evidence from in vitro and animal studies on the identified adverse effects. In addition to a preliminary AOP for DON resulting in the adverse outcome (AO) ‘reduced body weight gain’, we developed a more elaborated AOP for FB1, from the molecular initiating event (MIE) ‘inhibition of ceramide synthases’ leading to the AO ‘neural tube defects’. The mechanistic evidence from AOPs can be used to support the limited evidence from human studies, to focus FB1- and DON-related research in humans to identify related early biomarkers of effect. In order to establish additional human exposure–health relationships in the future, recommendations are given to maximize the information that can be obtained from HBM.

Summary Fumonisin B1 (FB1) and Alternaria alternate f. sp. lycopersici (AAL)‐toxin are classified as sphinganine analog mycotoxins (SAMTs), which induce programmed cell death (PCD) in plants and pose health threat to humans who consume the contaminated crop products. Herein, Fumonisin B1 Resistant41 (FBR41), a dominant mutant allele, was identified by map‐based cloning of Arabidopsis FB1‐resistant mutant fbr41, then ectopically expressed in AAL‐toxin sensitive tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) cultivar. FBR41‐overexpressing tomato plants exhibited less severe cell death phenotype upon AAL‐toxin treatment. Analysis of free sphingoid bases showed that both fbr41 and FBR41‐overexpressing tomato plants accumulated less sphinganine and phytosphingosine upon FB1 and AAL‐toxin treatment, respectively. Alternaria stem canker is a disease caused by AAL and responsible for severe economic losses in tomato production, and FBR41‐overexpressing tomato plants exhibited enhanced resistance to AAL with decreased fungal biomass and less cell death, which was accompanied by attenuated accumulation of free sphingoid bases and jasmonate (JA). Taken together, our results indicate that FBR41 is potential in inhibiting SAMT‐induced PCD and controlling Alternaria stem canker in tomato.

Through partitioning of ecological niches, several fungi are able to coexist on the same host crop. In (partial) absence of niche partitioning, competitive exclusion among fungi can occur. Competitive exclusion is one of the bases for biocontrol. We investigated fungal correlations, in terms of relative abundance of the fungi, in pre-harvest maize, as a natural ecosystem model. Internal mycobiome fungal relative abundance of maize was used to establish correlations. The maize had been harvested from dry and wet agro-ecological zones of Zambia. The relative abundances of the fungal genera were determined using DNA amplicon sequencing. For this study, positive or absence of correlations between fungal genera signified good niche partitioning (co-existence), whereas negative correlations signified poor niche partitioning and potential for competitive exclusion. When species compete within one niche (competitive exclusion), we may expect to detect higher levels of mycotoxins—since mycotoxins are considered antagonistic agents aimed at defending or invading an ecological niche. To estimate the importance of mycotoxins in competitive exclusion, we measured the influence of the fungal correlations on levels of fumonisin-B1 (FB1) in the maize. FB1 data were derived from a previous study on the maize, determined by HPLC. Results showed that Sarocladium and Stenocarpella had the strongest significant negative correlation with Fusarium , suggesting poor niche partitioning and potential for antagonism of these genera with Fusarium . Furthermore, higher levels of Stenocarpella resonated with lower levels of FB1 and vice versa. It was also observed that, when Sarocladium was in low abundance (< 10%), the frequency of detection of higher levels of FB1 (> 100 µg kg −1 ) in the pre-harvest maize was highest.

Transcriptional regulation mediated by the balance of histone acetylation and deacetylation is fundamental in responding to environmental cues by impacting chromatin remodeling. Histone deacetylases (HDACs) are enzymes that remove acetyl groups from histone and non-histone proteins, thus restoring a tight chromatin structure. In pathogenic fungi, HDACs have been implicated in growth, secondary metabolite biosynthesis, and virulence. However, the role of HDACs in the mycotoxin fumonisin B1 (FB1)-producing fungus Fusarium verticillioides is poorly understood. In this study, we systematically characterized six F. verticillioides HDACs. An increased level of H4K16ac was observed in the deletion mutant of FvHOS2, which was associated with vegetative growth, conidiation, and virulence when infecting sugarcane and maize. FvRpd3 appeared to be essential for vegetative growth, while FvHda1 promoted growth, and both contributed to conidiation and pathogenicity. In contrast, FvSirt4 displayed a negative correlation with these processes. Additionally, the FB1 production was positively affected by FvHos2 and FvRpd3, but negatively impacted by Fvhda1, FvSir2, FvHst2, and FvSirt4 through the regulation of different key fumonisin biosynthetic (FUM) genes. Further findings indicate an association between FvSirt4 and FvSkb1, which is a histone methylase that positively regulates FB1 and pathogenicity. Moreover, as a global transcriptional regulator, over 2365 genes (~15% of the genome) enriched in multiple metabolic pathways were significantly downregulated in the ΔFvhos2 mutants relative to the wild type. Overall, our results suggest distinct roles of HDACs in regulating the growth, virulence, mycotoxin FB1 production, and gene expression in F. verticillioides.

The aim of this study determined the concentrations of total aflatoxin, ochratoxin-A, fumonisin-B1 and zearalenone in 40 different extruded dry type from premium (or with high price) (P-food) (n = 20) and economic (or with low price) (E-food) (n = 20) class foods with different nutritional content. According to ingredients, lamb meal (or by products) + cereal grain (LG-food), fish meal (or by products) + cereal grain (FG-food), chicken meal (or by products) + cereal grain (CG-food), and animal by-products + grain-free (GFree-food) (with potato or tapioca) were selected equal numbers for E-food and P-foods. Total aflatoxin was not detected in the Gfree-dog foods and the FG-dog foods. The total aflatoxin concentrations of P-food and E-food were 1.30 ppb and 1.98 ppb in DM, respectively (P = 0.154). The fumonisin-B1 was detected in 10% of P-foods and 70% of E-foods (P < 0.001). The fumonisin-B1 concentration in GFree-food of dog was lower than those of other dog foods (P < 0.05). The highest fumonisin-B1 concentration of dog foods was in E-food of CG-food (3107 ppb in DM). The zearalenone concentration of GFree-food was lower than those of LG-food, FG-food and CG-food (P < 0.05). As a result, the total mycotoxins concentration of GFree-food (106 ppb in DM) were lower than those of other dog foods. The total mycotoxin, total aflatoxin, ochratoxin-A and fumonisin-B1 concentration of E-food were higher than those of P-foods. The highest total mycotoxin concentration was in the E-food classes of CG-food. Therefore, zearalenone concentration of P-food was higher than that of E-food. Highlights The total mycotoxin, total aflatoxin, ochratoxin-A and fumonisin-B1 concentration of the economic class dog food were higher than those of the premium class dog food. The highest total mycotoxin concentration was in the economic class dog food with chicken + grain. Ochratoxin-A has not been detected in any of the premium class dog foods. Economic class of grain-free dog foods contained very low concentrations of fumonisin-B1 and zearelenone mycotoxins, while premium class of they contained none.

In this paper, a highly sensitive plasmonic enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (pELISA) was developed for the naked-eye detection of fumonisin B1 (FB1). Glucose oxidase (GOx) was used as an alternative to horseradish peroxidase as the carrier of the competing antigen. GOx catalyzed the oxidation of glucose to produce hydrogen peroxide, which acted as a reducing agent to reduce Au3+ to Au on the surface of gold seeds (5 nm), This reaction led to a color change in the solution from colorless to purple, which was observable to the naked eye. Various parameters that could influence the detection performance of pELISA were investigated. The developed method exhibited a considerably high sensitivity for FB1 qualitative naked-eye detection, with a visible cut-off limit of 1.25 ng/mL. Moreover, the proposed pELISA showed a good linear range of 0.31–10 ng/mL with a half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 1.86 ng/mL, which was approximately 13-fold lower than that of a horseradish peroxidase- (HRP)-based conventional ELISA. Meanwhile, the proposed method was highly specific and accurate. In summary, the new pELISA exhibited acceptable accuracy and precision for sensitive naked-eye detection of FB1 in maize samples and can be applied for the detection of other chemical contaminants.

Urinary biomarkers of mycotoxin exposure were evaluated in a group of celiac patients (n = 55) and in a control group of healthy subjects (n = 50) following their habitual diet. Deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), and fumonisin B1 (FB1) were monitored in 105 urinary samples collected from the two groups. Dietary habits were also recorded through compilation of a seven-day weighed dietary diary. Biomarkers of mycotoxin exposure were detected in 21 celiac patients and in 15 control subjects, corresponding to about 34% of total participants. In particular, ZEN was the most detected mycotoxin among all the studied subjects with a total of 19 positive cases. Results did not show a statistically significant difference in mycotoxin exposure between the two groups, and the presence of specific mycotoxins was not related to the intake of any particular food category. Our findings suggest little urgency of specific regulation for gluten free products, although the prevalence of exposure observed in free-living diets of both celiac and healthy subjects underlines the need of a constant surveillance on mycotoxins occurrence at large.