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Soil water uptake is a function of root growth and distribution. Therefore, restrictions on root system growth may reduce water and nutrient uptake, which results in slower plant growth. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of different irrigation strategies, nitrogen application rates, and planting methods on the winter wheat root growth. The experimental factors included two irrigation strategies (variable alternate furrow irrigation defined as partial root-zone irrigation and ordinary furrow irrigation), two planting methods (in-furrow planting and on-ridge planting), and three nitrogen (N) application rates (0, 150, and 300 kg N ha −1 ) in 2015–2016 and 2016–2017 growing seasons. Results indicated that the in-furrow planting decreased mean root length density and root mass density (8% and 10%, respectively, in the fertilized treatments) compared to that obtained in the on-ridge planting. The partial root-zone irrigation reduced root length density by about 5% and 7% in the fertilized treatments compared to that obtained in full irrigation in the first and second year, respectively; however, these reductions were not statistically significant. Furthermore, the results implied that nitrogen fertilizer application increased root length density by 48% and 24% in the first and second year, respectively. Likely, root mass density increased by 32% and 5% in the first and second year, respectively. The exponential decaying relationship between root length density and soil depth indicated that the in-furrow planting with 300 kg N ha −1 produced the highest root density at the soil surface layer and reduced deep root penetration compared to the on-ridge planting and the other N treatments. Further analysis revealed that grain yield linearly correlated with root length density and root mass density in the first year. However, a polynomial (quadratic) relationship was obtained in the second year. Consequently, increasing the main root traits, including root length and root mass, enhanced winter wheat grain yield until it reached a threshold value. Higher values negatively affected grain yield, which might be due to allocating carbon to roots instead of grains.

The article presents the results of a theoretical study on determining the main dimensions of the furrow maker. In the results of the research, the dimensions of the soil blade cut by the ridge maker, the height of the furrow maker, the depth of its immersion into the soil, the shape and dimensions of the furrow maker, the diameter (radius) of the disc ridger, the angle of installation in relation to the direction of movement were obtained. and its dependence on the depth of immersion into the soil was determined and its location in the frame was based on. When the width of the interspaces between rows are 90 cm, the entrance corner of furrow maker in the soil must be 10.7-13.2 cm and the distance of settlement along the softener must be at least 0.578 m in order to make 26-30 cm high beds.

Background and aims Ridge and furrow technology is widely used to increase yields in Northwest China, where the focus is primarily on ridge cropping or furrow planting. However, the effects of ridge and furrow configuration (planting both on ridges and in furrows) on soil water and temperature, maize canopy structure and grain yield are still not clear. Methods A 2-year (2015–2016) field experiment was conducted to investigate the regulatory effects of different planting systems [conventional flat planting (CK), ridge and furrow configuration with two rows of plants in both ridges and furrows (R 2 F 2 ), and with three rows in ridges and two rows in furrows (R 3 F 2 )] on soil water and temperature, canopy traits, grain yield and resource use efficiency. Results Soil hydrothermal environment and canopy structure were improved under ridge and furrow configuration, but did not cause excessive water consumption. Compared with CK, ridge and furrow configuration showed a greater advantage in water and temperature allocation, which increased leaf area index (LAI), photosynthetic capacity per plant and dry matter accumulation in furrows. Additionally, ridge and furrow systems represented a higher canopy light transmission rate to bottom layers, which contributed to more light interception capacity for plants. In comparison with CK, grain yield of R 2 F 2 and R 3 F 2 significantly improved by 20.5% and 12.4%, water use efficiency improved by 26.2% and 20.1%, and radiation use efficiency improved by 28.2% and 17.8%, respectively. Conclusions Ridge and furrow configuration optimized canopy structure and soil hydrothermal environment, ultimately increasing grain yield and resource use efficiency.

Irrigation water and nitrogen (N) are the limiting factors for crop production in arid and semi-arid areas. However, excess irrigation and N application rate is a source of groundwater contamination. Partial root drying irrigation (PRD) is the water-saving technique and would perform as a controlling measure of groundwater N contamination as it reduces irrigation amount. Sugar beet is an industrial crop that is widely grown in arid and semi-arid area where N and water are highly required for high sugar beet yield production. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the interaction effect of ordinary furrow irrigation (OFI), and PRD irrigation as variable alternate furrow irrigation (VAFI) and fixed alternate furrow irrigation (FAFI) with different N application rates (0, 80, 160, and 240 kg ha −1 ) on sugar beet root and sugar yield, yield quality, drainage water, N leaching, N uptake, and N efficiency indices. Results indicated that the alternate furrow irrigation (AFI) used 24% less irrigation water compared with the OFI in the study region, whereas its sugar yield was reduced just by 9%. However, it resulted in higher water productivity by 12 and 17% for root and sugar yields, respectively. In different N application rates nitrate leaching reduced by 46 and 52% in the VAFI and FAFI irrigation treatments compared with the OFI, respectively. Physiologic nitrogen efficiency enhanced in VAFI with 160 kg N ha −1 that implied higher production of uptake N in plants. Therefore, considering the nitrogen use economics and environmental impacts, the VAFI and 160 kg N ha −1 were preferred to the other irrigation treatments and N application rates in the study region. Higher nitrogen saving occurred because of less leaching and higher soil residual in the AFI treatment compared with the OFI. Furthermore, leaf level stress sensitivity index indicated that VAFI increased the sugar beet resistance to water stress. Overall, in order to avoid N losses in sugar beet production, the amount of N fertilizer should be reduced in proportion to the amount of soil water available under VAFI water-saving irrigation.

Consumptive water footprint (WF) reduction in irrigated crop production is essential given the increasing competition for freshwater. This study explores the effect of three management practices on the soil water balance and plant growth, specifically on evapotranspiration (ET) and yield (Y) and thus the consumptive WF of crops (ET / Y). The management practices are four irrigation techniques (furrow, sprinkler, drip and subsurface drip (SSD)), four irrigation strategies (full (FI), deficit (DI), supplementary (SI) and no irrigation), and three mulching practices (no mulching, organic (OML) and synthetic (SML) mulching). Various cases were considered: arid, semi-arid, sub-humid and humid environments in Israel, Spain, Italy and the UK, respectively; wet, normal and dry years; three soil types (sand, sandy loam and silty clay loam); and three crops (maize, potato and tomato). The AquaCrop model and the global WF accounting standard were used to relate the management practices to effects on ET, Y and WF. For each management practice, the associated green, blue and total consumptive WF were compared to the reference case (furrow irrigation, full irrigation, no mulching). The average reduction in the consumptive WF is 8–10 % if we change from the reference to drip or SSD, 13 % when changing to OML, 17–18 % when moving to drip or SSD in combination with OML, and 28 % for drip or SSD in combination with SML. All before-mentioned reductions increase by one or a few per cent when moving from full to deficit irrigation. Reduction in overall consumptive WF always goes together with an increasing ratio of green to blue WF. The WF of growing a crop for a particular environment is smallest under DI, followed by FI, SI and rain-fed. Growing crops with sprinkler irrigation has the largest consumptive WF, followed by furrow, drip and SSD. Furrow irrigation has a smaller consumptive WF compared with sprinkler, even though the classical measure of \"irrigation efficiency\" for furrow is lower.

A study was conducted with the objective of determining the effect of deficit irrigation on maize (Zea mays L.) under conventional, fixed, and alternate furrow irrigation. The experiment was conducted at Jimma Agricultural Research Center (JARC) in 2014/2015 and 2015/2016 dry periods. Nine treatments of different deficit irrigation levels were factorial combined and randomized in plots, and all cultural practices were done. The crop water requirement was calculated using the CROPWAT8.0 program. Yield and growth parameter data were recorded, and analyzed using SAS software. The two-year over-all statistical analysis result showed that, different deficit irrigation levels had a significant effect (p<0.05) on grain yield, ear height, fresh biomass, 100 seed weight, girth, and water productivity. However, there was no significant effect (p > 0.05) on plant height and internode length. The result revealed that 100% ETc conventional furrow gave the highest grain yield (106.1 Qun/ha), followed by 75% ETc conventional furrow (101.23 Qun/ha) and 50% ETc conventional furrow (81.86 Qun/ha). The minimum yield of 55.64 Qun/ha was obtained at a fixed 50% furrow irrigation, and there was a 52.44% yield improvement. The maximum fresh biomass of 196.5 Qun/ha was obtained from 100% conventional furrow, and the minimum 103.40 Qun/ha was at 50% fixed furrow irrigation. The maximum and minimum water productivity of 8.007 and 2.8 kg/m3 were obtained at 75% conventional and 100% fixed furrow irrigation, respectively. Considering the water productivity, net economic benefit and sustainable production of the crop in the agroecology of the study area, combination of 55% up to 85% of deficit irrigation level with conventional furrow irrigation system could be recommended for the production of maize in a deficit furrow irrigation method. Based on the observations made and the statistical analysis done, fixed furrow irrigation was not recommended for the study area.

The availability and quality of irrigation water in Egypt have become major challenges for the agricultural sector. Thus, increasing water productivity and improving irrigation efficiency are critical goals. A field experiment was conducted under Upper Egypt conditions at the El-Mattana Agricultural Research Station, Luxor governorate, Egypt, to evaluate the effects of different irrigation methods traditional furrow irrigation (Ti), surge furrow irrigation (Si), and alternate furrow irrigation (Ai), on water productivity, growth, and yield of wheat in clay loam soil. The wheat cultivar MISR2 ( Triticum aestivum L.) was cultivated during the 20/21 and 21/22 growing seasons, using irrigation scheduled after 50% depletion of the soil available water. The results indicated that the treatment of Si produced the greatest plant height (115.0 and 117.7 cm) and grain yield (7.99 and 8.16 t ha⁻¹) for both seasons, respectively. In contrast, the treatment of Ai resulted in the lowest values for these traits (106.4 and 107.2 cm in plant height and 6.94 and 6.24 t ha⁻¹ in grain yield, respectively). The total annual rainfall during the two growing seasons were recorded as 0 mm. The highest amount of irrigation water applied (6522, 6427.2 m 3 ha -1 ) was recorded with the treatment of Ti; while the lowest amount (5493.6, 5175.1 m 3 ha -1 ) was recorded with Ai treatments in 20/21, and 21/22 growing seasons, respectively. The highest irrigation water productivity (1.75 kg m -3 and 1.35 kg m -3 in the first season and 1.44 kg m -3 and 1.20 kg m -3 in the second season under the treatment of Ai and Si, respectively. The treatment of Ai was most effective for saving water, by 15.8% and 19.48% over the two seasons. These results suggesting that an extra irrigation water amount may be saved without any significant loss in yield of wheat when applying Si irrigation method. This research contributes to developing evidence-based irrigation management strategies for improving wheat production in arid regions.

Cytokinesis is the final step of cell division during which a contractile ring forms a furrow that partitions the cytoplasm in two. How furrow ingression is spatiotemporally regulated and how it is adapted to complex cellular environments and developmental transitions remain poorly understood. Here, we examine furrow ingression dynamics in the context of the early mouse embryo and find that cell size is a powerful determinant of furrow ingression speed during reductive cell divisions. In addition, the emergence of cell polarity and the assembly of the apical domain in outer cells locally inhibits the recruitment of cytokinesis components and thereby negatively regulates furrow ingression specifically on one side of the furrow. We show that this biasing of cytokinesis is not dependent upon cell–cell adhesion or shape but rather is cell intrinsic and is caused by a paucity of cytokinetic machinery in the apical domain. The results thus reveal that in the mouse embryo cell polarity directly regulates the recruitment of cytokinetic machinery in a cell-autonomous manner and that subcellular organization can instigate differential force generation and constriction speed in different zones of the cytokinetic furrow.

Palmer amaranth is a common weed on levees in rice fields but has become increasingly problematic with the adoption of furrow-irrigated rice and lack of an established flood. Florpyrauxifen-benzyl previously has been found effective for controlling Palmer amaranth in rice, but the efficacy of low rates of florpyrauxifen-benzyl and the effect of Palmer amaranth size on controlling it is unknown. The objective of this research was to determine the level of Palmer amaranth control expected with single and sequential applications of florpyrauxifen-benzyl at varying weed heights. The first study was conducted near Marianna, AR, in 2019 and 2020, to determine the effect of florpyrauxifen-benzyl rate on control of <10 cm (labeled size) and 28- to 32-cm-tall (larger-than-labeled size) Palmer amaranth. The second experiment was conducted in 2020 at two locations in Arkansas to compare single applications of florpyrauxifen-benzyl at low rates to sequential applications at the same rates with a 14-d interval on 20- and 40-cm-tall Palmer amaranth. Results revealed that florpyrauxifen-benzyl at 15 g ae ha–1 was as effective as 30 g ae ha–1 in controlling <10-cm-tall Palmer amaranth (92% and 95% mortality in 2019). Sequential applications of florpyrauxifen-benzyl at 8 g ae ha–1 were as effective as single or sequential applications at 30 g ae ha–1. However, no rate of florpyrauxifen-benzyl applied to 20- or 40-cm-tall Palmer amaranth was sufficient to provide season-long control of the weed, with the escaping female plants producing as many as 6,120 seed per plant following a single application. Nomenclature: Florpyrauxifen-benzyl; rice; Oryza sativa L.; Palmer amaranth; Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson

This article discusses the mathematical model of furrow irrigation to establish irrigation rates when watering cotton through a screen from an interpolyme complex (IPC) with the addition of mineral fertilizers. By the change in \"I\" when watering cotton through a surface screen from IPC with the addition of mineral equations, we can say that physically the effect of the screen will affect the amount and rate of infiltration «I» and \"ϑI\", other relations do not change. In the case of placing the screen in the form of a thin film (as experiments show), soil infiltration decreases by approximately 3-3.5 times.