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Glycolytic metabolism is closely involved in physiological homeostasis and pathophysiological states. Among glycolytic enzymes, phosphoglycerate mutase (PGAM) has been reported to exert certain physiological role in vitro , whereas its impact on glucose metabolism in vivo remains unclear. Here, we report the characterization of Pgam1 knockout mice. We observed that homozygous knockout mice of Pgam1 were embryonic lethal. Although we previously reported that both PGAM-1 and -2 affect global glycolytic profile of cancers in vitro , in vivo glucose parameters were less affected both in the heterozygous knockout of Pgam1 and in Pgam2 transgenic mice. Thus, the impact of PGAM on in vivo glucose metabolism is rather complex than expected before.

White adipose tissue (WAT) produces large amounts of lactate and glycerol from glucose. We used mature epididymal adipocytes to analyse the relative importance of glycolytic versus lipogenic glycerol in adipocytes devoid of external stimuli. Cells were incubated (24/48 h) with 7/14 mM glucose; half of the wells contained 14 C-glucose. We analysed glucose label fate, medium metabolites, and the expression of key genes coding for proteins controlling glycerol metabolism. The effects of initial glucose levels were small, but time of incubation increased cell activity and modified its metabolic focus. The massive efflux of lactate was uniform with time and unrelated to glucose concentration; however, glycerol-3P synthesis was higher in the second day of incubation, being largely incorporated into the glycerides-glycerol fraction. Glycerophosphatase expression was not affected by incubation. The stimulation of glycerogenic enzymes’ expression was mirrored in lipases. The result was a shift from medium glycolytic to lipolytic glycerol released as a consequence of increased triacylglycerol turnover, in which most fatty acids were recycled. Production of glycerol seems to be an important primary function of adipocytes, maintained both by glycerogenesis and acyl-glycerol turnover. Production of 3C fragments may also contribute to convert excess glucose into smaller, more readily usable, 3C metabolites.

Cultured adipocytes (3T3-L1) produce large amounts of 3C fragments; largely lactate, depending on medium glucose levels. Increased glycolysis has been observed also in vivo in different sites of rat white adipose tissue. We investigated whether fructose can substitute glucose as source of lactate, and, especially whether the glycerol released to the medium was of lipolytic or glycolytic origin. Fructose conversion to lactate and glycerol was lower than that of glucose. The fast exhaustion of medium glucose was unrelated to significant changes in lipid storage. Fructose inhibited to a higher degree than glucose the expression of lipogenic enzymes. When both hexoses were present, the effects of fructose on gene expression prevailed over those of glucose. Adipocytes expressed fructokinase, but not aldolase b. Substantive release of glycerol accompanied lactate when fructose was the substrate. The mass of cell triacylglycerol (and its lack of change) could not justify the comparatively higher amount of glycerol released. Consequently, most of this glycerol should be derived from the glycolytic pathway, since its lipolytic origin could not be (quantitatively) sustained. Proportionally (with respect to lactate plus glycerol), more glycerol was produced from fructose than from glucose, which suggests that part of fructose was catabolized by the alternate (hepatic) fructose pathway. Earlier described adipose glycerophophatase activity may help explain the glycolytic origin of most of the glycerol. However, no gene is known for this enzyme in mammals, which suggests that this function may be carried out by one of the known phosphatases in the tissue. Break up of glycerol-3P to yield glycerol, may be a limiting factor for the synthesis of triacylglycerols through control of glycerol-3P availability. A phosphatase pathway such as that described may have a potential regulatory function, and explain the production of glycerol by adipocytes in the absence of lipolytic stimulation.

The purpose of this study is to highlight the impact of exercise on increasing GLUT4 translocation in cell membranes. This study searches many journal databases, including Embase, Pubmed, Web of Science, and Scopus, as part of a systematic review methodology. Publications released during the last five years and publications mentioning were the inclusion criteria for this study physical exercise, GLUT4 and glucose uptake. The study's exclusion criteria were publications that were published in not reputable journals. 508 papers in all were found using the databases Scopus, Web of Science Pubmed, and Embase. For this systematic review, a total of 10 papers that satisfied the inclusion criteria were chosen and examined. This study adhered to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) evaluation guidelines for standard operations. The outcome of this comprehensive analysis study report that there is an increase and acceleration of GLUT4 translocation during physical exercise. This has the effect of increasing glucose uptake in the blood so that there is an increase in the need for glucose in the blood. We recommend that physical exercise be a preventive measure for each individual in terms of increasing blood glucose uptake which is useful for maintaining balanced glucose levels in the blood and maintain general body health. Keywords: Physical training; GLUT4; Glucose; Insulin

This work corresponds to the optimization of the operating variables of the enzymatic hydrolysis of corn starch to obtain glucose syrups using the genetic algorithm of Matlab (2020a). For this reason, the hydrolytic process is mathematically modeled by response surface methodology. Pareto chart indicated that saccharification variables exert the highest influence on starch conversion. This mathematical model is beneficial for a better understanding and operational control of hydrolysis at the industrial level. The optimization problem solution shows that a maximum dextrose equivalent of 98.13% can be reached if the hydrolysis is performed under optimal operating conditions, which were also confirmed experimentally. The results show that to achieve the highest yield, liquefaction should be carried out at a temperature of 92oC, pH of 6.3, α-amylase dose of 1.5 mg enzyme/g starch and hydrolysis time of 1 hour; while saccharification should be conducted at a temperature of 57oC, pH of 4.9, glucoamylase dose of 1.15 mg enzyme/g starch and hydrolysis time of 34 hours. The reversion phenomenon is detected when the hydrolysis time exceeds 35 hours, with a negative incidence on the dextrose equivalent. Este trabajo corresponde a la optimización de las variables de operación de la hidrólisis enzimática de almidón de maíz para la obtención de jarabes de glucosa utilizando el algoritmo genético de Matlab (2020a). Para ello, el proceso de hidrólisis se modeló matemáticamente mediante la metodología de superficie de respuesta. El diagrama de Pareto indicó que las variables de sacarificación ejercen la mayor influencia en la conversión del almidón. Este modelo matemático es de gran utilidad para una mejor comprensión y control operacional de la hidrólisis a nivel industrial. La solución del problema de optimización muestra que puede alcanzarse un equivalente máximo de dextrosa del 98,13% si la hidrólisis se realiza en las condiciones operacionales óptimas, las cuales se comprobaron experimentalmente. Los resultados muestran que, para alcanzar el mayor rendimiento, la licuefacción debe llevarse a cabo a una temperatura de 92oC, pH de 6,3, dosis de α-amilasa de 1,5 mg de enzima/g de almidón y tiempo de hidrólisis de 1 hora; mientras que la sacarificación debe realizarse a una temperatura de 57oC, pH de 4,9, dosis de glucoamilasa de 1,15 mg de enzima/g de almidón y tiempo de hidrólisis de 34 horas. El fenómeno de reversión se detectó cuando el tiempo de hidrólisis superó las 35 horas, con una incidencia negativa sobre el equivalente en dextrosa.

Introducción: La hipoglucemia recurrente aumenta el riesgo de desarrollar hipoglucemia asintomática, que afecta hasta al 40 % de las personas con diabetes y conduce a episodios de hipoglucemia graves. Objetivo: Este estudio tuvo como objetivo evaluar el efecto de la monitorización instantánea de la glucosa en la percepción de la hipoglucemia en pacientes con diabetes mellitus de tipo 1. Método: Se realizó un estudio cuasiexperimental de 24 semanas en el Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocío en el que participaron 68 pacientes con diabetes tipo 1 con hipoglucemia grave o asintomática. El resultado primario fue el cambio en la puntuación del test de Clark desde el inicio hasta las 24 semanas posteriores a la implementación de un dispositivo flash de monitorización de glucosa (Free Style 2®, Abbott). Los resultados secundarios incluyeron cambios en los datos glucémicos y factores que influyen en la mejora de la percepción. Resultados: La puntuación de la prueba de Clark disminuyó significativamente, con una reducción en el tiempo total de hipoglucemia. No se observaron cambios significativos en el tiempo por debajo del rango o dentro del rango. Una mayor duración de la diabetes se asoció con una mayor probabilidad de hipoglucemia asintomática persistente. Conclusiones: La monitorización rápida de la glucosa mejoró la percepción de la hipoglucemia y redujo el tiempo de hipoglucemia y la variabilidad glucémica en pacientes con diabetes tipo 1, aunque su impacto en la HbA1c y el tiempo en rango fue mínimo. Introduction: Recurrent hypoglycemia increases the risk of developing asymptomatic hypoglycemia, which affects up to 40% of people with diabetes and leads to severe hypoglycemic episodes. Objective: This study aimed to evaluate the effect of instant glucose monitoring on the perception of hypoglycemia in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Method: A 24-week quasi-experimental study was conducted at the Virgen del Rocío University Hospital involving 68 patients with type 1 diabetes with severe or asymptomatic hypoglycemia. The primary outcome was the change in Clark test score from baseline to 24 weeks after implementation of a flash glucose monitoring device (Free Style 2®, Abbott). Secondary outcomes included changes in glycemic data and factors influencing improved perception. Results: The Clark test score decreased significantly, with a reduction in total hypoglycemic time. No significant changes were observed in time below or in range. Longer duration of diabetes was associated with a higher likelihood of persistent asymptomatic hypoglycemia. Conclusions: Rapid glucose monitoring improved the perception of hypoglycemia and reduced hypoglycemic time and glycemic variability in patients with type 1 diabetes, although its impact on HbA1c and time in range was minimal.

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are widely used in fermentation in the food industry and silage for animal feed. Environmental factors such as temperature affect the survival of microorganisms in food and silage. Encapsulation technologies preserve the integrity of encapsulated microorganisms, protecting them from adverse environmental conditions. The present work examined the effect of three storage temperatures, room (25 °C), refrigeration (4 °C), and freezing (-18 °C), in the presence of three substrates (glucose, whey, or distilled water) on the survival of alginate-encapsulated Lactobacillus acidophilus through CFU counting. The results showed that encapsulated L. acidophilus stored at 4 °C exhibited CFU values ​​between 0.61 and 0.99 for 80 days, these being the highest, while room temperature obtained the lowest CFU, with values ​​between 0.312 and 0.93. Encapsulated L. acidophilus in the presence of whey and glucose showed a higher number of CFU, with values ​​between 0.53 and 1, throughout the storage time, compared to those in distilled water, whose values ​​were between 0.3 and 0.99. Glucose and serum are suitable for growing encapsulated L. acidophilus at room, refrigeration, and freezing temperatures for 90 days of storage. Regardless of the culture medium, freezing temperature is appropriate for storing L. acidophilus for long periods. Las bacterias lácticas (BAL) son de amplio uso en fermentaciones de la industria alimenticia y en ensilajes para alimentación animal. Sin embargo, la supervivencia de los microorganismos en los alimentos y en ensilajes se ve afectada por factores ambientales como la temperatura. Por consiguiente, la exploración de tecnologías de encapsulación permitiría preservar la integridad de los microorganismos encapsulados al protegerlos de las condiciones adversas del entorno. En el presente trabajo se examinó el efecto de tres temperaturas de almacenamiento: ambiente (25 °C), refrigeración (4 °C) y congelación (-18 °C), en presencia de tres sustratos: glucosa, suero de leche o agua destilada en la supervivencia de Lactobacillus acidophilus encapsulado en alginato a través del conteo de las UFC. Los resultados mostraron que L. acidophilus encapsulado y almacenado a 4 °C presentó valores de UFC entre 0,61 y 0,99 durante 80 días, siendo estos los más altos, mientras que la temperatura ambiente presentó los menores números de UFC, con valores entre 0,312 y 0,93, siendo estos los más bajos entre las tres temperaturas analizadas. L. acidophilus encapsulado en presencia de suero de leche y glucosa mostró mayor número de UFC, con valores entre 0,53 y 1, a lo largo del tiempo de almacenamiento, en comparación con aquellos en presencia de agua destilada, cuyos valores estuvieron entre 0,3 y 0,99. La glucosa y el suero son los medios adecuados para el cultivo de L. acidophilus encapsulado a temperaturas ambiente, de refrigeración y de congelación durante 90 días de almacenamiento. Independiente del medio de cultivo, la temperatura de congelación es la adecuada para el almacenamiento de L. acidophilus durante largos períodos.

In mammals, the liver plays a central role in maintaining carbohydrate and lipid homeostasis by acting both as a major source and a major sink of glucose and lipids. In particular, when dietary carbohydrates are in excess, the liver converts them to lipids via de novo lipogenesis. The molecular checkpoints regulating the balance between carbohydrate and lipid homeostasis, however, are not fully understood. Here we identify PPP2R5C, a regulatory subunit of PP2A, as a novel modulator of liver metabolism in postprandial physiology. Inactivation of PPP2R5C in isolated hepatocytes leads to increased glucose uptake and increased de novo lipogenesis. These phenotypes are reiterated in vivo, where hepatocyte specific PPP2R5C knockdown yields mice with improved systemic glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity, but elevated circulating triglyceride levels. We show that modulation of PPP2R5C levels leads to alterations in AMPK and SREBP-1 activity. We find that hepatic levels of PPP2R5C are elevated in human diabetic patients, and correlate with obesity and insulin resistance in these subjects. In sum, our data suggest that hepatic PPP2R5C represents an important factor in the functional wiring of energy metabolism and the maintenance of a metabolically healthy state.

In mammals, the liver plays a central role in maintaining carbohydrate and lipid homeostasis by acting both as a major source and a major sink of glucose and lipids. In particular, when dietary carbohydrates are in excess, the liver converts them to lipids via de novo lipogenesis. The molecular checkpoints regulating the balance between carbohydrate and lipid homeostasis, however, are not fully understood. Here we identify PPP2R5C, a regulatory subunit of PP2A, as a novel modulator of liver metabolism in postprandial physiology. Inactivation of PPP2R5C in isolated hepatocytes leads to increased glucose uptake and increased de novo lipogenesis. These phenotypes are reiterated in vivo, where hepatocyte specific PPP2R5C knockdown yields mice with improved systemic glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity, but elevated circulating triglyceride levels. We show that modulation of PPP2R5C levels leads to alterations in AMPK and SREBP-1 activity. We find that hepatic levels of PPP2R5C are elevated in human diabetic patients, and correlate with obesity and insulin resistance in these subjects. In sum, our data suggest that hepatic PPP2R5C represents an important factor in the functional wiring of energy metabolism and the maintenance of a metabolically healthy state.

Background: Hyperglycemia is a marker of poor outcome in acute ischemic stroke (IS) patients. We aimed at evaluating the effect of combined HbA1c and first glucose measurement values on 3-month mortality prediction. Methods: In a prospective analysis, 1,317 first-ever IS patients with HbA1c values were classified by first glycemia value (<155, 155-199, ≥200 mg/dl). Three-month mortality was analyzed by glycemia category in nondiabetics, diabetics with good previous glucose control (PGC) (HbA1c <7%), and diabetics with poor PGC (HbA1c ≥7.0%). Results: Mortality at 3 months was 13.1%, with no differences (p = 0.339) between non-diabetes mellitus (DM) (12.3%), good PGC-DM (12.4%), and poor PGC-DM (15.6%) patients. The unadjusted relative risk of 3-month mortality for patients with glucose ≥200 mg/dl was 3.76 (95% CI 1.48-9.56) in non-DM, 6.10 (95% CI 1.76-21.09) in good PGC-DM, and 1.44 (95% CI 0.77-2.69) in poor PGC-DM. Glycemia cutoffs most highly correlated with mortality increased as PGC declined: 107 mg/dl in non-DM, 152 mg/dl in good PGC-DM, and 229 mg/dl in poor PGC-DM patients. Glycemia correlated with stroke severity in nondiabetics and diabetic patients with good PGC, but not in those with poor PGC. Conclusions: HbA1c determination combined with first measured glucose value is useful to stratify mortality risk in IS patients: hyperglycemia is a poor prognostic marker in non-DM and DM patients with good PGC; results are inconsistent in poor PGC-DM patients. Our data suggest the relationship between hyperglycemia and poor outcome reflects stress response rather than a deleterious effect of glucose.