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This paper examines the effect of both cumulative and transitory exposures to air pollution for the same individuals over time on cognitive performance by matching a nationally representative longitudinal survey and air quality data in China according to the exact time and geographic locations of the cognitive tests. We find that long-term exposure to air pollution impedes cognitive performance in verbal and math tests. We provide evidence that the effect of air pollution on verbal tests becomes more pronounced as people age, especially for men and the less educated. The damage on the aging brain by air pollution likely imposes substantial health and economic costs, considering that cognitive functioning is critical for the elderly for both running daily errands and making high-stake decisions.

AD is a neurodegenerative disease, and its frequency is often reported to be higher for women than men: almost two-thirds of patients with AD are women. One prevailing view is that women live longer than men on average of 4.5 years, plus there are more women aged 85 years or older than men in most global subpopulations; and older age is the greatest risk factor for AD. However, the differences in the actual risk of developing AD for men and women of the same age is difficult to assess, and the findings have been mixed. An increasing body of evidence from preclinical and clinical studies as well as the complications in estimating incidence support the sex-specific biological mechanisms in diverging AD risk as an important adjunct explanation to the epidemiologic perspective. Although some of the sex differences in AD prevalence are due to differences in longevity, other distinct biological mechanisms increase the risk and progression of AD in women. These risk factors include (1) deviations in brain structure and biomarkers, (2) psychosocial stress responses, (3) pregnancy, menopause, and sex hormones, (4) genetic background (i.e., APOE), (5) inflammation, gliosis, and immune module (i.e., TREM2), and (6) vascular disorders. More studies focusing on the underlying biological mechanisms for this phenomenon are needed to better understand AD. This review presents the most recent data in sex differences in AD—the gateway to precision medicine, therefore, shaping expert perspectives, inspiring researchers to go in new directions, and driving development of future diagnostic tools and treatments for AD in a more customized way.

Background Colorectal cancer (CRC) is an illness strongly influenced by sex and gender, with mortality rates in males significantly higher than females. There is still a dearth of understanding on where sex differences exist along the pathway from presentation to survival. The aim of this review is to identify where actions are needed to improve outcomes for both sexes, and to narrow the gap for CRC. Methods A cross-sectional review of national data was undertaken to identify sex differences in incidence, screening uptake, route to diagnosis, cancer stage at diagnosis and survival, and their influence in the sex differences in mortality. Results Overall incidence is higher in men, with an earlier age distribution, however, important sex differences exist in anatomical site. There were relatively small differences in screening uptake, route to diagnosis, cancer staging at diagnosis and survival. Screening uptake is higher in women under 69 years. Women are more likely to present as emergency cases, with more men diagnosed through screening and two-week-wait. No sex differences are seen in diagnosis for more advanced disease. Overall, age-standardised 5-year survival is similar between the sexes. Conclusions As there are minimal sex differences in the data from routes to diagnosis to survival, the higher mortality of colorectal cancer in men appears to be a result of exogenous and/or endogenous factors pre-diagnosis that lead to higher incidence rates. There are however, sex and gender differences that suggest more targeted interventions may facilitate prevention and earlier diagnosis in both men and women.

This study examines the impact of gender differences on maize productivity in Dawuro Zone, southern Ethiopia. Our study addressed the limitations of the previous studies in two ways. First, the study separately assessed gender differences in productivity between de facto female-headed households and de jure female-headed households and revealed that female-headed households are not homogenous. Second, the study separately examined the impacts of the covariates on male-headed households and female-headed households using an exogenous switching treatment effect model. We find the existence of gender differences in maize productivity between male-headed households and female-headed households. The maize productivity of male-headed households was overall 44.3% higher than that of female-headed households. However, if female-headed households received the same return on their resources as male-headed households, their productivity would increase by 42.3%. This suggests agricultural policy should target female-headed households to help reduce the productivity gap between male-headed households and female-headed households. Finally, the distributions of the gender differentials between male-headed households and female-headed households are more pronounced at mid-levels of productivity.

In this article theories of gender hegemony are utilized to assess how changing norms impact upon the binary construction of gender. Transformed gender ideals have materialized in the figure of the 'empowered' and autonomous yet reassuringly feminine woman. Despite the assimilation of key attributes associated with masculinity this particular expression of idealized femininity does not necessarily rework dominant perceptions of gender difference and their organization into a relation of hierarchical complementarity. Through the review of key empirical studies which have examined identity work undertaken by young women and young men as they negotiate idealized gender norms, this article examines how hegemonic relations are reproduced alongside the production of plural femininities and masculinities. This analysis is discussed in relation to changes associated with a move from a private to a public gender regime, a perceived feminization of the public sphere, and the complication of contradictory gender ideals.

The pattern of gender differences in math and verbal ability may result in females having a wider choice of careers, in both science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) and non-STEM fields, compared with males. The current study tested whether individuals with high math and high verbal ability in 12th grade were more or less likely to choose STEM occupations than those with high math and moderate verbal ability. The 1,490 subjects participated in two waves of a national longitudinal study; one wave was when the subjects were in 12th grade, and the other was when they were 33 years old. Results revealed that mathematically capable individuals who also had high verbal skills were less likely to pursue STEM careers than were individuals who had high math skills but moderate verbal skills. One notable finding was that the group with high math and high verbal ability included more females than males.

This study investigated sex/gender differences in camouflaging with children and adolescents ( N  = 84) with and without an autism diagnosis/increased levels of autistic traits using two conceptualisations/operationalisations of camouflaging. A significant group-by-gender interaction using ANCOVA, with the covariate of verbal IQ, reflected similar levels of social reciprocity in autistic and neurotypical females, whereas autistic males had lower reciprocity than neurotypical males. Autistic females also had higher reciprocity than autistic males, despite similar levels of autistic traits (behavioural camouflaging). Additionally, autistic males and females had similar theory of mind skills, despite females having increased reciprocity (compensatory camouflaging). These findings provide evidence of increased camouflaging in autistic females, which may contribute to delay in the recognition of difficulties and provision of support.

Gender differences in life satisfaction (LS) have been studied for a long time, and the first meta-analysis on this issue was conducted almost 40 years ago. Since then, the social status of females has changed considerably across different nations and cultures. The individual studies in this area continued to show inconsistent results concerning gender group differences in their respective perception of LS. In this study, 46 empirical studies from 1980 to 2017 (with a cumulated total N = 11,772) were meta-analyzed to examine potential gender differences in LS among children and adolescents, and to explore if some study features could be moderators that could account for the observed inconsistencies in the findings across studies. The findings revealed that LS remains invariant across gender groups, but with a slight difference in favor of male children and adolescents. Our results further suggested that four study features were shown to contribute to the variations of the reported gender difference in LS across individual studies: geographical region, population type, age, and domain specific LS measurements. Such different features across the individual studies could have led to the observed inconsistency of the findings. Understanding how gender differences in LS vary by these study features could allow us to consider more targeted support to increase LS of children and adolescents in different situations.

\"Doing Gender,\" West and Zimmerman's (1987) landmark article, highlighted the importance of social interaction, thus revealing the weaknesses of socialization and structural approaches. However, despite its revolutionary potential for illuminating how to dismantle the gender system, doing gender has become a theory of gender persistence and the inevitability of inequality. In this article, the author argues that we need to reframe the questions to ask how we can undo gender. Research should focus on (1) when and how social interactions become less gendered, (2) whether gender can be irrelevant in interaction, (3) whether gendered interactions always underwrite inequality, (4) how the institutional and interactional levels work together to produce change, and (5) interaction as the site of change.

Background: Descriptive epidemiologists have repeatedly reported that males are more susceptible to head and neck cancers. However, most published data are those of cross-sectional studies, and no population-based cohort study has yet been published. The aim of this study was to compare the prevalence of head and neck cancers in healthy males with females. Methods: A retrospective cohort study using the Korean National Health Insurance Service database on 9,598,085 individuals who underwent regular health checkups from 1 January to 31 December 2009. We sought head and neck cancers developed during the 10-year follow-up. Results: A total of 10,732 (incidence rate (IR) per 1000 person-years 0.25) individuals were newly diagnosed with head and neck cancer among the 9,598,085 individuals during the 10-year follow-up. The IR was 0.19 in males (8500 affected) and 0.06 in females (2232 affected). Notably, the male–female ratio increased with age below 70 years but decreased thereafter. The male–female difference was most apparent for laryngeal cancer; the male IR was 11-fold higher in the 40 s and 20-fold higher in the 60 s, followed by hypopharyngeal cancer (6.8- and 24.2-fold). Males smoked more and drank more alcohol than females (p < 0.0001 *, p < 0.0001 *). When never-smokers/-drinkers (only) were compared, males remained at a 2.9-fold higher risk of head and neck cancer than females. The hazard ratios for head and neck cancers in males tended to increase in the lower part of the upper aerodigestive tract: larynx (13.9) > hypopharynx (10.9) > oropharynx (4.4) > nasopharynx (2.9) > sinonasal region (1.8) > oral (1.6). Only the salivary gland cancer incidence did not differ between the sexes; the gland is not in the upper aerodigestive tract. Conclusion: Males are much more susceptible to head and neck cancers than females regardless of whether they drink alcohol or smoke tobacco. Sex differences in the incidence of head and neck cancer are most evident in the 60 s in the lower part of the upper aerodigestive tract, such as the larynx and hypopharynx.