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The Geological Record of Ocean Acidification
Ocean acidification may have severe consequences for marine ecosystems; however, assessing its future impact is difficult because laboratory experiments and field observations are limited by their reduced ecologie complexity and sample period, respectively. In contrast, the geological record contains long-term evidence for a variety of global environmental perturbations, including ocean acidification plus their associated biotic responses. We review events exhibiting evidence for elevated atmospheric CO₂, global warming, and ocean acidification over the past ~300 million years of Earth's history, some with contemporaneous extinction or evolutionary turnover among marine calcifiers. Although similarities exist, no past event perfectly parallels future projections in terms of disrupting the balance of ocean carbonate chemistry—a consequence of the unprecedented rapidity of CO₂ release currently taking place.
Journal Article
Geology lab for kids : 52 projects to explore rocks, gems, geodes, crystals, fossils and other wonders of the Earth's surface
Geology Lab for Kids features 52 simple, inexpensive, and fun experiments that explore the Earth's surface, structure, and processes. This family-friendly guide explores the wonders of geology, such as the formation of crystals and fossils, the layers of the Earth's crust, and how water shapes mountains, valleys, and canyons. There is no excuse for boredom with a year's worth of captivating STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Art & Math) activities.
Book
The Scenario Model Intercomparison Project (ScenarioMIP) for CMIP6
Projections of future climate change play a fundamental role in improving understanding of the climate system as well as characterizing societal risks and response options. The Scenario Model Intercomparison Project (ScenarioMIP) is the primary activity within Phase 6 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6) that will provide multi-model climate projections based on alternative scenarios of future emissions and land use changes produced with integrated assessment models. In this paper, we describe ScenarioMIP's objectives, experimental design, and its relation to other activities within CMIP6. The ScenarioMIP design is one component of a larger scenario process that aims to facilitate a wide range of integrated studies across the climate science, integrated assessment modeling, and impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability communities, and will form an important part of the evidence base in the forthcoming Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assessments. At the same time, it will provide the basis for investigating a number of targeted science and policy questions that are especially relevant to scenario-based analysis, including the role of specific forcings such as land use and aerosols, the effect of a peak and decline in forcing, the consequences of scenarios that limit warming to below 2°C, the relative contributions to uncertainty from scenarios, climate models, and internal variability, and long-term climate system outcomes beyond the 21st century. To serve this wide range of scientific communities and address these questions, a design has been identified consisting of eight alternative 21st century scenarios plus one large initial condition ensemble and a set of long-term extensions, divided into two tiers defined by relative priority. Some of these scenarios will also provide a basis for variants planned to be run in other CMIP6-Endorsed MIPs to investigate questions related to specific forcings. Harmonized, spatially explicit emissions and land use scenarios generated with integrated assessment models will be provided to participating climate modeling groups by late 2016, with the climate model simulations run within the 2017-2018 time frame, and output from the climate model projections made available and analyses performed over the 2018-2020 period.
Journal Article
Overview of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) experimental design and organization
By coordinating the design and distribution of global climate model simulations of the past, current, and future climate, the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP) has become one of the foundational elements of climate science. However, the need to address an ever-expanding range of scientific questions arising from more and more research communities has made it necessary to revise the organization of CMIP. After a long and wide community consultation, a new and more federated structure has been put in place. It consists of three major elements: (1) a handful of common experiments, the DECK (Diagnostic, Evaluation and Characterization of Klima) and CMIP historical simulations (1850-near present) that will maintain continuity and help document basic characteristics of models across different phases of CMIP; (2) common standards, coordination, infrastructure, and documentation that will facilitate the distribution of model outputs and the characterization of the model ensemble; and (3) an ensemble of CMIP-Endorsed Model Intercomparison Projects (MIPs) that will be specific to a particular phase of CMIP (now CMIP6) and that will build on the DECK and CMIP historical simulations to address a large range of specific questions and fill the scientific gaps of the previous CMIP phases. The DECK and CMIP historical simulations, together with the use of CMIP data standards, will be the entry cards for models participating in CMIP. Participation in CMIP6-Endorsed MIPs by individual modelling groups will be at their own discretion and will depend on their scientific interests and priorities. With the Grand Science Challenges of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) as its scientific backdrop, CMIP6 will address three broad questions: - How does the Earth system respond to forcing? - What are the origins and consequences of systematic model biases? - How can we assess future climate changes given internal climate variability, predictability, and uncertainties in scenarios? This CMIP6 overview paper presents the background and rationale for the new structure of CMIP, provides a detailed description of the DECK and CMIP6 historical simulations, and includes a brief introduction to the 21 CMIP6-Endorsed MIPs.
Journal Article
Dynamic planet : exploring changes on Earth with science projects
\"Illustrated instructions for experiments pertaining to changes on Earth, including plate tectonics, erosion, the greenhouse effect, and glaciers\"-- Provided by publisher.
Book
How River Rocks Round: Resolving the Shape-Size Paradox
River-bed sediments display two universal downstream trends: fining, in which particle size decreases; and rounding, where pebble shapes evolve toward ellipsoids. Rounding is known to result from transport-induced abrasion; however many researchers argue that the contribution of abrasion to downstream fining is negligible. This presents a paradox: downstream shape change indicates substantial abrasion, while size change apparently rules it out. Here we use laboratory experiments and numerical modeling to show quantitatively that pebble abrasion is a curvature-driven flow problem. As a consequence, abrasion occurs in two well-separated phases: first, pebble edges rapidly round without any change in axis dimensions until the shape becomes entirely convex; and second, axis dimensions are then slowly reduced while the particle remains convex. Explicit study of pebble shape evolution helps resolve the shape-size paradox by reconciling discrepancies between laboratory and field studies, and enhances our ability to decipher the transport history of a river rock.
Journal Article
A review of shallow slow earthquakes along the Nankai Trough
Slow earthquakes occur at deep and shallow plate boundaries along the Nankai Trough. Deep slow earthquakes are continuously distributed along the 30–40 km depth contours of the upper surface of the subducted Philippine Sea Plate. In contrast, shallow slow earthquakes occur in limited regions: Hyuga-nada, off Cape Muroto, and southeast off the Kii Peninsula. This review provides an overview of the up-to-date seismological, geodetic, geological, and experimental results in the shallow Nankai area for a unified understanding of the spot-like occurrence of shallow slow earthquakes. Shallow slow earthquakes tend to be distributed in transitional regions between the frictionally locked and stably sliding zones on the plate boundary. Based on geological and experimental studies, the lithology of incoming sediments and their friction coefficients can be variable along the Nankai Trough. Laboratory friction experiments revealed that sediments under shallow plate boundary conditions often exhibit positive (a − b) values, while negative (a − b) is possible via several processes. Subducted seamounts create complex fracture networks and stress shadows in their surrounding areas; however, not all subducted seamounts are related to shallow slow earthquake activities. This incomplete correlation suggests that alternative factors are required to explain the spot-like distribution of shallow slow earthquakes in the Nankai subduction zone. High pore fluid pressure conditions around shallow slow earthquake zones were interpreted based on seismological structural studies. In addition, ambient noise monitoring revealed temporal changes in seismic velocity structures associated with shallow slow earthquake migrations. This result suggests a close link between pore fluid migration and shallow slow earthquake episodes. Because transient changes in pore fluid pressure can lead to various slip behaviors, the episodic migration of pore fluid around the plate boundary could promote shallow slow earthquake activity along the Nankai Trough.
Journal Article