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Extreme earth
Towering Mount Everest is famous for its height, but the lowest point on Earth, Challenger Deep, is deeper than Everest is high. The Cave of Crystals in Mexico contains formations of gypsum that look like giant swords. Not only does Earth contain some extreme land formations such as these, but it's constantly changing. The world's largest desert, the Sahara, was once a swamp, and volcanoes are still building islands. These facts and many more, as well as quizzes, diagrams, and fun information boxes, create a book that will make readers truly appreciate Earth's awesome natural history.
Book
The 2018 reawakening and eruption dynamics of Steamboat Geyser, the world’s tallest active geyser
Steamboat Geyser in Yellowstone National Park’s Norris Geyser Basin began a prolific sequence of eruptions in March 2018 after 34 y of sporadic activity. We analyze a wide range of datasets to explore triggering mechanisms for Steamboat’s reactivation and controls on eruption intervals and height. Prior to Steamboat’s renewed activity, Norris Geyser Basin experienced uplift, a slight increase in radiant temperature, and increased regional seismicity, which may indicate that magmatic processes promoted reactivation. However, because the geothermal reservoir temperature did not change, no other dormant geysers became active, and previous periods with greater seismic moment release did not reawaken Steamboat, the reason for reactivation remains ambiguous. Eruption intervals since 2018 (3.16 to 35.45 d) modulate seasonally, with shorter intervals in the summer. Abnormally long intervals coincide with weakening of a shallow seismic source in the geyser basin’s hydrothermal system. We find no relation between interval and erupted volume, implying unsteady heat and mass discharge. Finally, using data from geysers worldwide, we find a correlation between eruption height and inferred depth to the shallow reservoir supplying water to eruptions. Steamboat is taller because water is stored deeper there than at other geysers, and, hence, more energy is available to power the eruptions.
Journal Article
Geyser Inspired Algorithm: A New Geological-inspired Meta-heuristic for Real-parameter and Constrained Engineering Optimization
Over the past years, many efforts have been accomplished to achieve fast and accurate meta-heuristic algorithms to optimize a variety of real-world problems. This study presents a new optimization method based on an unusual geological phenomenon in nature, named Geyser inspired Algorithm (GEA). The mathematical modeling of this geological phenomenon is carried out to have a better understanding of the optimization process. The efficiency and accuracy of GEA are verified using statistical examination and convergence rate comparison on numerous CEC 2005, CEC 2014, CEC 2017, and real-parameter benchmark functions. Moreover, GEA has been applied to several real-parameter engineering optimization problems to evaluate its effectiveness. In addition, to demonstrate the applicability and robustness of GEA, a comprehensive investigation is performed for a fair comparison with other standard optimization methods. The results demonstrate that GEA is noticeably prosperous in reaching the optimal solutions with a high convergence rate in comparison with other well-known nature-inspired algorithms, including ABC, BBO, PSO, and RCGA. Note that the source code of the GEA is publicly available at
https://www.optim-app.com/projects/gea
.
Journal Article
Temporal variations of geyser water chemistry in the Upper Geyser Basin, Yellowstone National Park, USA
Geysers are rare features that reflect a delicate balance between an abundant supply of water and heat and a unique geometry of fractures and porous rocks. Between April 2007 and September 2008, we sampled Old Faithful, Daisy, Grand, Oblong, and Aurum geysers in Yellowstone National Park's Upper Geyser Basin and characterized temporal variations in major element chemistry and water isotopes (δ18O, δD, 3H). We compare these temporal variations with temporal trends of Geyser Eruption Intervals (GEI). SiO2 concentrations and geothermometry indicate that the geysers are fed by waters ascending from a reservoir with temperatures of ∼190 to 210°C. The studied geysers display small and complex chemical and isotopic seasonal variations, and geysers with smaller volume display larger seasonal variations than geysers with larger volumes. Aurum and Oblong Geysers contain detectable tritium concentrations, suggesting that erupted water contains some modern meteoric water. We propose that seasonal GEI variations result from varying degrees of evaporation, meteoric water recharge, water table fluctuations, and possible hydraulic interaction with the adjacent Firehole River. We demonstrate that the concentrations of major dissolved species in Old Faithful Geyser have remained nearly constant since 1884 despite large changes in Old Faithful's eruption intervals, suggesting that no major changes have occurred in the hydrothermal system of the Upper Geyser Basin for >120 years. Our data set provides a baseline for monitoring future changes in geyser activity that might result from varying climate, earthquakes, and changes in heat flow from the underlying magmatic system. Key Points Geysers display small seasonal chemical and isotopic variations Evaporation, water recharge, and water table elevation alter eruption intervals Old Faithful Geyser chemistry remained nearly constant since 1884
Journal Article
