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"Gilding"
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A Roemer with Gilt Decoration of the Coats of Arms of the Holy Roman Empire, Dated 1662
The focus of this article is a roemer decorated with gilt coats of arms of the Holy Roman Emperor and seven Electors, once in the collection of Baron Nathaniel von Rothschild (1836–1905) and now in the collection of the Corning Museum of Glass (2023.3.11). Below the arms is an inscription stating that the roemer is a Wilkum (Wilkomm or “glass of welcome”) and the date, 1662. The technique of gilding is unusual: the gold is on the exterior surface of a pebbly red underlayer, which XRF reveals to be consistent with red bole or minium. This made the unfired gilt decoration more stable and less likely to wear with handling and gave it a perceptible thickness. Two other roemers, dated 1661 and 1662, in the collections of the Museum für Angewandte Kunst, Cologne, and the Hessisches Landesmuseum, Kassel, having gilt decoration produced using the same technique, are attributed to the same single, unidentified artisan. These roemers are, at present, the earliest known examples of the technique for gilding on glass.
Journal Article
Analysis of twelve wooden spear throwers covered with gilded copper from the Moche tomb of the Lady of Cao
Twelve spear throwers from the tomb of the “Lady of Cao” were analyzed with a portable equipment which uses energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF). The pre-Columbian tomb of the Lady of Cao is located about 50 km north of Trujillo, in the north of Peru, and is dated around 350 A.D. The spear throwers are on gilded copper over a wood cylindrical structure. All analyzed spears have a similar gilding, and four of them have also additional much smaller gilding rings covering the wood structure. These rings are clearer and contain more silver, in three cases about the double, in one case about five times the silver of “normal” gilding. There were two problems to solve: the first one is related to the composition of the gildings, the second one is related to the determination of their thickness. The last problem, which is much critical, was solved using a new method based on the different attenuation of fluorescent X-rays by the gildings.
Journal Article
Serious metallic mercury poisoning in the gilding of the Great Buddha in Nara in the 8 century: Trial calculation of exposure level
Gilding of the Great Buddha was carried out in the 8th century using gold amalgam. Occurrence of serious metallic mercury poisoning was suspected strongly soon after the end of gilding. The trial calculation of minimum exposure level was 4.0 mgHg/m3. Occurrence of the worst metallic mercury poisoning in the recorded history was strongly suspected. The exposure level in artisanal open-pit gold mining might be similar to that in the gilding of the Great Buddha in the 8th century.
Journal Article
Formation mechanism of copper-gilded coronet ornaments excavated from a Sui or early Tang tomb situated in Xi’an, Shaanxi
The formation of the gold layer in mercury gilding occurs through the heating a gold amalgam. As a result, the formation mechanism and technical characteristics of gilded products are closely related to the temperature at which they are heated. In this study, XRD and XPS analysis of a copper-gilded coronet from the Sui or Tang dynasties revealed that Au3Cu was one of the main phases of the gold layer. Therefore, base on the thermodynamic stability of ordered phases like Au3Cu, the estimated heating temperature for this copper-gilded coronet ranged from 240 to 285 ℃. Furthermore, SEM–EDS analysis of the cross-sectional concentration distribution of Cu indicated that the diffusion distance of Cu during heating did not exceed 2 μm. At 240–285 ℃, Cu diffused along the defects of the gold layer, and the diffusion process followed Fick’s second law. Previous research has indicated that the defect path diffusion coefficient of Cu is on the order of 10–12 cm2/s, and the heating time of the gilding process is typically considered to be 15 min. Using the diffusion equation, the calculated diffusion distance of Cu aligned with the diffusion behavior of Cu at 240–285 ℃, confirming the inferred heating temperature range. Additionally, at these temperatures, the gold layer was formed through the solid-state reaction of the gold amalgam and was bonded to the substrate through the diffusion of Cu.
Journal Article
Gold, Skin, and Body: Chinese Buddha Statues Are Constantly Being Shaped and Stripped
The brilliant effect of the Buddha not only strengthens Buddhist believers’ psychological effects of worship, consecration, and showing off of merits, but also becomes an important dissemination method to attract the public to join in. Starting from the golden skin of ancient Buddha statues, this paper analyzes the relevant historical documents and unearthed objects of gilded Buddha statues in ancient India, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and China and pays attention to the body decoration and technology dissemination as well as the process and influence of Chinese localization. In traditional Buddhist culture, gold technology and its application have an important impact on artistic expression, appearance protection, and the psychology of Buddhist statues. In the Late Tang Dynasty, the government and Buddhism suffered conflicts between supply and demand due to gold resources. The forced stripping of gilded Buddha statues became a historical epitome reflecting the deep social and economic problems.
Journal Article
X-ray fluorescence analysis of three late medieval silver chalices associated with Ireland
This paper presents the results of the first X-ray fluorescence (XRF) investigation conducted on three late medieval chalices associated with Ireland: the Ó Learghusa chalice, auctioned as medieval Irish in 2021, does not have a confirmed provenance; the de Burgo-O'Malley chalice, dated 1494, and the TP-IEP chalice, dated 1589, both of Irish provenance. This study effectively addressed the knowledge gap concerning Irish medieval silver chalices composition. The analysis revealed that both the Ó Learghusa and de Burgo-O'Malley chalices were crafted from a silver-copper alloy and adorned using a fire-gilding technique. The blue and green enamels on the de Burgo-O'Malley chalice were found to be constituted by cobalt and iron/copper glasses, respectively. In contrast, the TP-IEP chalice exhibited a more intricate structure, being a composite object with partial silver gilt and with the bowl and base possibly made of a ternary silver-copper-gold alloy. The TP-IEP chalice’s knop displayed glass, simulating gems with transparent, blue, and purple colorations. XRF analysis allowed identification of lead-potash glass, while the red glass displayed a rich iron content and was identified as soda-lime glass. The analysis allowed concluding that the de Burgo-O'Malley chalice had retained its original condition, including its original gilding and enamels, while the Ó Learghusa and TP-IEP chalices appeared to have undergone refurbishment. These significant discoveries contribute to a deeper understanding of the historical context and artistic craftsmanship behind these late medieval chalices, shedding light on their unique stories within Irish art and history.
Journal Article
Pigments—Iron-based red, yellow, and brown ochres
Natural Fe-bearing ochres ranging in color from yellow to deep red and brown abound on earth’s crust. Quite often, ochres can be used for pigmenting purposes upon little or no processing, and, hence, the pertinent materials have been widely employed for decorative and artistic purposes since the dawn of prehistory; ochres have also found medicinal applications. This paper offers an overview regarding the range and composition of the available natural ochre pigments, their origin, properties, and potential processing. In addition, the production and processing of artificial ochres is presented. The prevailing analytical techniques currently employed in ochres’ identification and provenancing are also discussed, and guidelines for good practice are provided. Finally, authors offer some insight on ochres’ potential applications and their limitations, while a discussion pertaining to ochres in the Greco-Roman world is also included.
Journal Article
Pre‐industrial Use of Bauxite by Late Gothic Goldsmith Masters: Analytical Evidence and Experimental Study
The turn of the 15th and the 16th century was marked by turmoil including invasion of the Turks in the Balkans. Consequently, trade routes to the Mediterranean were disrupted, resulting in sudden demand for alternative sources of imported materials. For example, direct import of potassium alum had been gradually replaced by its local production from alunite, alum schists or grey pyritic bauxite. It has now been proven that concurrently extracted red bauxite had been used as a substitute for imported high‐quality red clay, the so‐called Armenian bole, employed by Central European painting workshops in the preparations for gilding (“poliments”). Importantly, connection with the documented mining of grey bauxite in Croatian Minjera was evidenced by unique finding of diaspore together with dominant boehmite. Mineralogical analyses were performed by X‐ray powder micro‐diffraction and reference bauxites from Istria and Balkan Peninsula were used to evaluate their technological suitability for gilding. As it was found that the earliest appearance of boehmite in poliment dates back to 1470, the beginning of bauxite mining in Europe is shifted to the period shortly after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, and it also represents the oldest known evidence of the use of bauxite raw material in technology. First analytical evidence and replication of yet undescribed substantial change in gilding technology in the early modern period ‐ the replacement of imported red clay (bole) with locally available bauxite. Proof of its source ‐ Croatian Minjera, according to a unique find of mineral diaspore. Earliest documented use of bauxite in technology ever, important for dating anonymous paintings.
Journal Article