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To compare transverse abdominis (TrA) muscle activity in college golfers with and without a history of low back pain (LBP) and examine the effects of ultrasound biofeedback and a functional golf-setup position on TrA activity. Crossover study. Laboratory. Thirty-two (n = 32) collegiate golfers were stratified into either the LBP group (n = 16, 4.6 ± 4.5 LBP episodes) or non-LBP group (n = 16, 0.1 ± 0.3 LBP episodes) based on LBP episodes in the last 6-months. Ultrasound measures of TrA activity were performed during standard contractions and contractions with ultrasound biofeedback. Contraction-type order was randomized between two visits. Testing was performed in two positions, supine and golf-setup positions. We observed no significant differences in TrA activity between the LBP and non-LBP groups. Overall, TrA activity was greater during biofeedback contractions compared to standard contractions, and TrA activity was lower in the golf-setup position compared to the supine position. We observed no differences in TrA activity between college golfers with and without LBP. College golfers with and without LBP demonstrated a greater ability to contract their TrA with real-time ultrasound biofeedback and a lower ability to contract their TrA in the functional golf-setup position compared to the traditional supine position. •TrA activity was similar between college golfers with and without low back pain.•College golfers had greater TrA activity when using ultrasound biofeedback.•College golfers had lower TrA activity in the functional, golf-setup position.

ObjectiveTo determine the prevalence and incidence of musculoskeletal injury in amateur and professional golfers, and to identify common injury sites and factors associated with increased injury frequency.DesignSystematic epidemiological review and meta-analysis.Data sourcesPubMed (Medline), Embase, the Cochrane Library and SPORTDiscus were searched in September 2023.Eligibility criteriaStudies published in the English language reporting the incidence or prevalence of musculoskeletal injuries in golfers at all anatomical sites.Results20 studies (9221 golfers, 71.9% male, 28.1% female) were included, with mean age 46.8 years. Lifetime injury prevalence was significantly greater in professional golfers (73.5% (95% CI: 47.3% to 93.0%)) than amateur golfers (56.6% (95% CI: 47.4% to 65.5%); relative risk (RR)=1.50, p<0.001). Professional golfers had a significantly greater lifetime prevalence of hand and wrist (RR=3.33, p<0.001) and lower back injury (RR=3.05, p<0.001). Soft tissue injuries were most common, and diagnoses were typically non-specific. Injury frequency was not associated with age or sex. Two studies reported a greater injury risk in amateur golfers playing more than three and four rounds per week.ConclusionOver half of golfers are at risk of sustaining a musculoskeletal injury during their lifetime. Risks and patterns of injury differ between professional and amateur golfers, with professionals significantly more likely to develop lower back, and hand and wrist injuries. A recent international consensus statement on the reporting of injury and illness in golf should aid consistency in future research assessing the epidemiology of specific diagnoses, informing golf injury prevention and management strategies.PROSPERO registration numberCRD42023408738.

ObjectiveTo assess the relationships between golf and health.DesignScoping review.Data sourcesPublished and unpublished reports of any age or language, identified by searching electronic databases, platforms, reference lists, websites and from consulting experts.Review methodsA 3-step search strategy identified relevant published primary and secondary studies as well as grey literature. Identified studies were screened for final inclusion. Data were extracted using a standardised tool, to form (1) a descriptive analysis and (2) a thematic summary.Results and discussion4944 records were identified with an initial search. 301 studies met criteria for the scoping review. Golf can provide moderate intensity physical activity and is associated with physical health benefits that include improved cardiovascular, respiratory and metabolic profiles, and improved wellness. There is limited evidence related to golf and mental health. The incidence of golfing injury is moderate, with back injuries the most frequent. Accidental head injuries are rare, but can have serious consequences.ConclusionsPractitioners and policymakers can be encouraged to support more people to play golf, due to associated improved physical health and mental well-being, and a potential contribution to increased life expectancy. Injuries and illnesses associated with golf have been identified, and risk reduction strategies are warranted. Further research priorities include systematic reviews to further explore the cause and effect nature of the relationships described. Research characterising golf's contribution to muscular strengthening, balance and falls prevention as well as further assessing the associations and effects between golf and mental health are also indicated.

Background Although pre-training stretching and the inherent flexibility of an athlete are generally regarded as beneficial for injury prevention, limited evidence exists on the association between flexibility, stretching habits, and spine injuries in professional golfers. This study aimed to evaluate the association between flexibility and spinal injuries among professional golfers in South Korea. Methods A nationwide cross-sectional study was conducted to assess spine injuries among professional active golfers in South Korea. Data on cervical (C)-spine and thoracolumbar/lumbar (T/L)-spine injury experiences, pre-injury golf-related habits, and flexibility measures containing the floor touch test, shoulder reach test, and thumb-to-forearm test were collected. Post-injury modifications in stretching, warming-up, and swing motion were also assessed. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to analyze the risks of golf-related spinal injuries. Results Of the 439 participants, 33.7% reported the experience of spinal injuries, with 15.5% experiencing C-spine injuries and 21.9% reporting T/L-spine injuries. For the flexibility measures, the shoulder reach test showed significant differentiation between injured and non-injured golfers ( P  = 0.010), with a “fair” grade being associated with a lower risk of T/L-spine injuries (OR, 0.29; 95% CI, 0.14–0.62). However, the floor touch test did not show a significant distinction ( P  = 0.274). Among golfers with the experience of T/L-spine injury, performance was significantly associated with modifications in warming-up ( P  = 0.002) and swing motion ( P  = 0.033). Conclusion This study found that a fair grade of flexibility in the shoulder reach test was associated with a significantly lower risk of T/L-spine injuries. Additionally, modifications in warming-up and swing motion after T/L-spine injuries were significantly associated with the performance of professional golfers.

ObjectivesTo determine the golf-related characteristics of spinal injuries among professional golfers in South Korea.DesignCross-sectional survey study.SettingOnline survey in South Korea.ParticipantsA total of 439 professional active golfers (226 males and 213 females) in South Korea completed our survey.MethodsData collected included experiences of cervical (C)-spine and thoracic and lumbar (T/L)-spine injuries, demographics and golf-related characteristics among Korean professional golfers. Logistic regression analysis was used to explore any potential factors of golf-related spinal injuries.ResultsA total of 33.7% (148 of 439) experienced total spine injury in professional active golfers, presenting 15.5% of C-spine injuries and 21.9% of T/L-spine injuries. Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that left-handed (OR, 2.79; 95% CI, 1.20 to 6.47 compared with right-handed) and fingertips <5 cm apart (fair grade) in the shoulder reach flexibility (OR, 0.33; 95% CI, 0.16 to 0.69) significantly influenced spinal injuries. Several factors such as age, golf-career years and body mass index were associated with time to injury, symptom duration and disability of spine injuries including C-spine and T/L-spine injuries.ConclusionsNearly 33.7% of Korean professional active golfers have experienced golf-related spinal injuries. These injuries appear to make left-handed golfers more vulnerable; however, adequate flexibility may offer protection against such injuries, suggesting the need for tailored preventative strategies based on individual biomechanical profiles.

Although golf is a low-impact sport without physical contact, its movements are carried out over a large range of motion, and their repetition can predispose athletes to the development of injuries. This study aimed to investigate the epidemiology of musculoskeletal injuries in golf athletes who participated in championships in southern Portugal, determining the types, locations and mechanisms of injury and their associated risk factors. The sample consisted of 140 athletes aged between 18 and 72 years, 133 (95%) being male. The measuring instrument was a questionnaire about sociodemographics, modality and injuries’ characteristics. Throughout golf practice, 70 (50%) athletes reported injuries, totaling 133 injuries. In the 12-month period, 43 (30.7%) athletes suffered injuries, totaling 65 injuries. The injury proportion was of 0.31, and the injury rate was of 0.33 injuries per 1000 h of golf training. The most common injury type was muscle sprain or rupture (19; 30.9%), located in the lumbar spine (17; 27%), in which the repetitive movements were the main injury mechanism (42; 66.7%). The athletes who trained 4 times or more per week were 3.5 more likely (CI: 0.97–12.36; p = 0.056) to develop an injury while playing golf. Moderate injury presence was observed, with the high training frequency being an associated risk factor.

Recently, a 4-year-old boy died from a traumatic brain injury sustained while he was in a golf cart that rolled over on an unpaved public road in Peterborough, Ontario. The 5 other occupants of the cart were ejected, and all sustained serious but non-fatal injuries. This was not an isolated event. The American Academy of Pediatrics reported an increase in golf cart-related injuries, from 5490 cases in 2010 to more than 6500 cases annually in 2017, 2018, and 2019. Current golf cart designs include emergency brakes, rearview mirrors, and reflectors, but restraints such as seat belts or lap bars, front windshields, side doors, and airbags are uncommon, which means occupants are prone to ejection. Ejection from the vehicle (52%) and the cart overturning (20%) are the most common mechanisms of golf cart-related injuries.

ObjectiveThe distribution of injuries affecting professional golfers is yet to be fully understood. We performed a systematic review of the clinical literature to establish the epidemiology of musculoskeletal injuries affecting professional golfers.DesignSystematic review.Data sourcesSearched databases in July 2018 were PubMed, SPORTDiscus and Embase.Eligibility criteriaPublished observational research articles relating to the incidence or prevalence of musculoskeletal injuries in professional golfers, which were written in the English language and not restricted by age or gender.ResultsOf the 1863 studies identified on the initial search, 5 studies were found to satisfy the inclusion criteria for analysis. The mean age of the golfers in these studies was 34.8 (±3.6) years. The gender of patients in included studies compromised 72% males and 28% females. Four studies reported that lumbar spine injuries were the most common (range 22%–34%). Excluding injuries to the spine (lumbar, thoracic and cervical), the hand/wrist was the next most common region of injury (range 6%–37%). The quality of the studies was relatively poor with no study satisfying >50% of the quality assessment tool questions and only one study giving a clear definition of how they defined injury.ConclusionThere is a paucity of well-designed epidemiological studies evaluating musculoskeletal injuries affecting professional golfers. Injuries to the spine are the most frequently affected region, followed by the hand/wrist. This study has identified targeted areas of future research that aims to improve the management of injuries among professional golfers.

Background Lateral and medial epicondylitis are common overuse injuries in golf affecting both amateur and professional players. Treatment options include medical but also non-medical interventions like optimizing golf equipment. While several studies have investigated the impact of grip size and style as well as the use of a golf glove on forearm muscle activity, the impact of shaft material remains unclear. Thus, aims of this study were (1) to assess the impact of different shaft material on the forearm muscle activity across the 5 phases of the golf swing, (2) to evaluate the effect on the individual performance and (3) to identify subgroups that may benefit more or less from this intervention. Methods A cohort of 40 golfers (mean age: 51 years; mean handicap: 16), completed 5 golf swings with a steel and a graphite shaft, respectively. Muscle activity of the M. extensor carpi radialis brevis (ECRB), M. flexor carpi ulnaris (FCU), M. pronator teres (PT) and M. biceps brachii (BB) in both the lead and the trail arm were evaluated using surface electromyography (EMG). Golf performance was measured with a Trackman device (Trackmangolf, Vedbæk, Denmark). Subgroup analyses were performed with regard to gender, playing ability (handicap < 10 vs. ≥10), preexisting elbow pain during golf (visual analogue scale (VAS) < 2 vs. VAS ≥ 2) and grip style (overlap vs. interlock vs. baseball). Significance was set at p  < 0.05. Results During the final swing phase, the late follow-through, a graphite shaft leads to lower muscle activity in the FCU ( p  = 0.027) and the PT ( p  = 0.009) of the lead arm. Regarding grip style, the FCU of the trail arm showed higher muscle activity using a steel shaft ( p  = 0.021). In golfers without preexisting elbow pain, a steel shaft caused higher PT muscle activity in the lead ( p  = 0.002) as well as the trail arm ( p  = 0.032). Conclusion Graphite shafts reduce forearm muscle activity in golf and may serve as a non-medical treatment for overuse injuries like lateral and medial epicondylitis. Trial registration The study was registered in the German Clinical Trials Register as “The Impact of Shaft Materials on Upper Limb Muscle Activity in Golf” DRKS-ID: DRKS00036063. Retrospectively registered on February 3, 2025.

Objective There is a lack of comprehensive analysis of injuries in golf per exposure time. Thus, the aim was to report the pooled incidence of injuries in golf. Methods We searched PubMed, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science databases in March 2024 for this systematic review and meta-analysis. We included observational studies reporting the number of injuries per exposure time. A random-effects model was used to calculate the pooled injury incidence per 1000 athlete exposures (18 holes of golf) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Incidences were separately analyzed for men, women, amateurs, professionals, and special athletes. Results A total of 999 studies were screened, 29 full texts were assessed, and 7 studies with 269,754 athlete exposures were included. Seven studies assessed the overall incidence of injury, and the pooled estimate was 2.5 per 1000 athlete exposures (CI 0.9–7.5). The incidence was higher in special athletes (21.0, CI 7.7–45.1; one study) than among professionals (8.5, CI 7.6–9.4; one study), or in amateurs (1.3, CI 0.5–4.0; five studies). The injury incidence was 2.6 per 1000 athlete exposures (CI 0.7–9.6; four studies) in women and 1.4 per 1000 athlete exposures (CI 0.4–5.2; three studies) in men. A sensitivity analysis without special athletes had an incidence of 1.9 (CI 0.7–4.9; six studies). Conclusion The injury incidence in golf is 2.5 injuries per 1000 athlete exposures (18 holes of golf). Reporting was limited as only one study reported injuries per exposure time in professionals, and in total, only seven studies were found. More research is needed in all levels and age groups to better estimate the injury incidence and associated risk factors in golf.