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Background We implemented a blood flow restriction resistance training (BFR-RT) intervention during an 8-week rehabilitation programme in anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) patients within a National Health Service setting. Objective To compare the effectiveness of BFR-RT and standard-care traditional heavy-load resistance training (HL-RT) at improving skeletal muscle hypertrophy and strength, physical function, pain and effusion in ACLR patients following surgery. Methods 28 patients scheduled for unilateral ACLR surgery with hamstring autograft were recruited for this parallel-group, two-arm, single-assessor blinded, randomised clinical trial following appropriate power analysis. Following surgery, a criteria-driven approach to rehabilitation was utilised and participants were block randomised to either HL-RT at 70% repetition maximum (1RM) ( n  = 14) or BFR-RT ( n  = 14) at 30% 1RM. Participants completed 8 weeks of biweekly unilateral leg press training on both limbs, totalling 16 sessions, alongside standard hospital rehabilitation. Resistance exercise protocols were designed consistent with standard recommended protocols for each type of exercise. Scaled maximal isotonic strength (10RM), muscle morphology of the vastus lateralis of the injured limb, self-reported function, Y-balance test performance and knee joint pain, effusion and range of motion (ROM) were assessed at pre-surgery, post-surgery, mid-training and post-training. Knee joint laxity and scaled maximal isokinetic knee extension and flexion strength at 60°/s, 150°/s and 300°/s were measured at pre-surgery and post-training. Results Four participants were lost, with 24 participants completing the study (12 per group). There were no adverse events or differences between groups for any baseline anthropometric variable or pre- to post-surgery change in any outcome measure. Scaled 10RM strength significantly increased in the injured limb (104 ± 30% and 106 ± 43%) and non-injured limb (33 ± 13% and 39 ± 17%) with BFR-RT and HL-RT, respectively, with no group differences. Significant increases in knee extension and flexion peak torque were observed at all speeds in the non-injured limb with no group differences. Significantly greater attenuation of knee extensor peak torque loss at 150°/s and 300°/s and knee flexor torque loss at all speeds was observed with BFR-RT. No group differences in knee extensor peak torque loss were found at 60°/s. Significant and comparable increases in muscle thickness (5.8 ± 0.2% and 6.7 ± 0.3%) and pennation angle (4.1 ± 0.3% and 3.4 ± 0.1%) were observed with BFR-RT and HL-RT, respectively, with no group differences. No significant changes in fascicle length were observed. Significantly greater and clinically important increases in several measures of self-reported function (50–218 ± 48% vs. 35–152 ± 56%), Y-balance performance (18–59 ± 22% vs. 18–33 ± 19%), ROM (78 ± 22% vs. 48 ± 13%) and reductions in knee joint pain (67 ± 15% vs. 39 ± 12%) and effusion (6 ± 2% vs. 2 ± 2%) were observed with BFR-RT compared to HL-RT, respectively. Conclusion BFR-RT can improve skeletal muscle hypertrophy and strength to a similar extent to HL-RT with a greater reduction in knee joint pain and effusion, leading to greater overall improvements in physical function. Therefore, BFR-RT may be more appropriate for early rehabilitation in ACLR patient populations within the National Health Service.

Background The effects of different autograft types for anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACL-R) on muscle function are sparsely investigated in randomized controlled trials. Our aim was to investigate the effects of quadriceps tendon autograft (QTB) vs. semitendinosus-gracilis autograft (StG) on thigh muscle strength and functional capacity, and a patient-reported outcome 1 year after ACL-R, and to compare the results to healthy controls. Methods ACL-R patients ( n  = 100) and matched controls (CON, n  = 50) were recruited, with patients being randomly assigned to QTB ( n  = 50) or StG ( n  = 50) ACL-R. One year after ACL-R, bilateral knee extensor (KE) and flexor (KF) muscle strength (isometric, dynamic, explosive, limb symmetry index [LSI], hamstring:quadriceps ratio [HQ ratio]) were assessed by isokinetic dynamometry, along with functional capacity (single leg hop distance [SHD]) and a patient-reported outcome (International Knee Documentation Committee [IKDC] score). Results KE muscle strength of the operated leg was lower (9–11%) in QTB vs. StG as was KE LSI, while KF muscle strength was lower (12–17%) in StG vs. QTB as was KF LSI. HQ ratios were lower in StG vs. QTB. Compared with the controls, KE and KF muscle strength were lower in StG (10–22%), while KE muscle strength only was lower in QTB (16–25%). Muscle strength in the StG, QTB, and CON groups was identical in the non-operated leg. While SHD and IKDC did not differ between StG and QTB, SHD in both StG and QTB was lower than CON. The IKDC scores improved significantly 1 year following ACL-R for both graft types. Conclusion One year after ACL-R, muscle strength is affected by autograft type, with StG leading to impairments of KE and KF muscle strength, while QTB results in more pronounced impairments of KE only. Functional capacity and patient-reported outcome were unaffected by autograft type, with the former showing impairment compared to healthy controls. Clinical Trials Registration Number NCT02173483.

Purpose The objective of this single-center randomized single-blinded trial was to assess the hypothesis that anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) using a four-strand semitendinosus (ST) graft with adjustable femoral and tibial cortical fixation produced good outcomes compared to an ST/gracilis (ST/G) graft with femoral pin transfixation and tibial bioscrew fixation. Follow-up was 2 years. Methods Patients older than 16 years who underwent primary isolated ACLR included for 1 year until August 2017 were eligible. The primary outcome measures were the subjective International Knee Documentation Committee (IKDC) score, isokinetic muscle strength recovery, and return to work within 2 years. The study was approved by the ethics committee. Results Of 66 eligible patients, 60 completed the study and were included, 33 in the 4ST group and 27 in the ST/G group. Mean age was 30.5 ± 8.9 years in the 4ST group and 30.3 ± 8.5 in the ST/G group (n.s.). No significant between-group differences were found for mean postoperative subjective IKDC (4ST group, 80.2 ± 12.5; ST/G group, 83.6 ± 13.6; n.s.), side-to-side percentage deficits in isokinetic hamstring strength (at 60°/s: ST group, 17% ± 16%; ST/G group, 14% ± 11%; n.s.) or quadriceps strength (at 60°/s: ST group, 14% ± 12%; ST/G group, 19% ± 17%; n.s.), return to work, pain during physical activities, side-to-side differential laxity, balance, loss of flexion/extension, or surgical complications. Conclusion This trial demonstrates that functional outcomes after 4ST for ACLR with cortical fixations could be as good, although not better, than those obtained using ST/G. The 4ST technique spares the gracilis tendon, which thus preserves the medial sided muscle and thereby could improve function and limit donor-side morbidity. Level of evidence Level I.

Background Pain in the immediate post-operative period after anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) surgery, apart from an unpleasant experience for the patient, can act as a barrier for static quadriceps contractions and optimum execution of the initial rehabilitation protocol resulting in slow recovery and a later return to full function for a sportsperson. There is no report in the literature comparing pain in the immediate post-operative period after using the two most widely used autografts, bone patellar tendon bone (BPTB) graft and hamstring graft. Methods The present study compared the visual analogue scale (VAS) pain score in the immediate post-operative period after arthroscopic ACL reconstruction with the BPTB and hamstring autografts. Both groups consisted of 50 patients each. The mean age of the BPTB and hamstring cohorts was 26.9 ± 7.3 years (age range 18–59 years) and 26.7 ± 9.0 years (age range 17–52 years), respectively. Unpaired t test was applied to compare pain scores between the BPTB and hamstring cohorts. Results In the present study, patients in the BPTB cohort showed higher mean pain scores across all the post-operative time intervals except at 6 h. However, the difference in the mean VAS pain score at post-operative 6, 12,18, 24, 36 and 48 h in the two groups was statistically not significant ( p value of 1, 0.665, 0.798, 0.377, 0.651 and 0.215 at 6, 12, 18, 24, 36 and 48 h, respectively). Conclusions Our study concludes that the arthroscopic ACL reconstruction with BPTB autograft and hamstring autograft is associated with similar pain in the immediate post-operative period. As a result, aggressive physiotherapy regime is not affected by the type of graft being used for ACL reconstruction, as the pain scores in the immediate post-operative period are similar for both techniques. Trial registration Clinical Trials Registry-India, CTRI/2016/01/006502

The muscle-tendon properties of the semitendinosus (ST) and gracilis (GR) are substantially altered following tendon harvest for the purpose of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR). This study adopted a musculoskeletal modelling approach to determine how the changes to the ST and GR muscle-tendon properties alter their contribution to medial compartment contact loading within the tibiofemoral joint in post ACLR patients, and the extent to which other muscles compensate under the same external loading conditions during walking, running and sidestep cutting. Motion capture and electromyography (EMG) data from 16 lower extremity muscles were acquired during walking, running and cutting in 25 participants that had undergone an ACLR using a quadruple (ST+GR) hamstring auto-graft. An EMG-driven musculoskeletal model was used to estimate the medial compartment contact loads during the stance phase of each gait task. An adjusted model was then created by altering muscle-tendon properties for the ST and GR to reflect their reported changes following ACLR. Parameters for the other muscles in the model were calibrated to match the experimental joint moments. The medial compartment contact loads for the standard and adjusted models were similar. The combined contributions of ST and GR to medial compartment contact load in the adjusted model were reduced by 26%, 17% and 17% during walking, running and cutting, respectively. These deficits were balanced by increases in the contribution made by the semimembranosus muscle of 33% and 22% during running and cutting, respectively. Alterations to the ST and GR muscle-tendon properties in ACLR patients resulted in reduced contribution to medial compartment contact loads during gait tasks, for which the semimembranosus muscle can compensate.

Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) is one of the most common orthopedic procedures, and huge variation exists in the surgical technique. Single bundle hamstrings autograft reconstruction is a common method and has good clinical outcomes. A criticism of the hamstrings autograft is a small graft diameter, often less than 8-mm, which has been associated with increased re-rupture rates. Several graft preparation techniques for single bundle hamstrings autograft exist. Perioperative decisions include the number of tendons utilized, number of graft strands, graft configuration, and femoral and tibial fixation methods. Awareness of the minimum tendon and graft length required to produce each graft variation is necessary to avoid common pitfalls. However, intraoperative graft modification is possible to maximize graft diameter, and obtain proper fixation. The objective of this current concepts review is to describe the indications, surgical anatomy, technique, intraoperative tips, clinical outcomes, and complications for single bundle hamstrings autograft preparation techniques in ACLR.

Purpose Impairments in quadriceps force control and altered quadriceps and hamstring muscle activation strategies have been observed following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction; however, the functional implications of these impairments are unclear. This study examined the cross-sectional associations between quadriceps force control, quadriceps activation, hamstring coactivation and clinically assessed knee function following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction with a hamstring graft. Methods Sixty-six patients (18 ± 3 months following surgery) and 41 uninjured individuals participated. Quadriceps force control was assessed using an isometric knee extension task. Participants cyclically increased and decreased quadriceps force at slow speeds between 5 and 30 % maximum voluntary isometric contraction matching a moving target displayed on a screen. Quadriceps activation and hamstring coactivation were assessed concurrently using surface electromyography. Knee function was assessed with the Cincinnati Knee Rating Scale and three single-leg hop tests. Results The reconstructed group completed the task with 48 % greater root-mean-square error (RMSE), indicating significantly worse quadriceps force control ( p  < 0.001). In a multivariable model adjusted for sex, greater RMSE and greater lateral hamstring coactivation were significantly associated with worse knee function that is greater odds of scoring <85 % on one or more knee functional assessment. Conclusions Less-accurate quadriceps force output and greater hamstring coactivation are associated with worse knee joint function following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction and may contribute to irregular knee joint loading and the onset or progression of knee osteoarthritis. Impairments in quadriceps force control and altered muscle activation strategies may be modifiable through neuromuscular training, and this is an area for future research. Level of evidence Case–control study, Level III.

Purpose The present study aimed to compare 2- and 5-year outcomes of ACL reconstruction between patients with and without generalized joint laxity and to perform comparative evaluation between two types of grafts used for ACL reconstruction in patients with generalized joint laxity. Methods Two hundred and thirty-seven patients who underwent ACL reconstruction from 2001 to 2008 were included. Patients were classified into two groups according to the presence or the absence of generalized joint laxity, and further subdivided into two subgroups based on the type of graft used: bone–patellar tendon–bone (BPTB) or hamstring. Generalized joint laxity was assessed with the Beighton and Horan criteria using a point scoring system. Stability reflected by the Lachman test, pivot-shift test, and anterior translation measured with KT-2000, and functional outcomes reflected by Lysholm knee score, and International Knee Documentation Committee (IKDC) subjective score were investigated. IKDC objective grade and radiographic grade were also assessed. Clinical assessments were conducted preoperatively and at 2 and 5 years after operation. Results Two-year follow-up results showed that patients with generalized joint laxity receiving hamstring grafts had poorer outcomes than those without generalized joint laxity. Five-year follow-up results showed that patients with generalized joint laxity experienced poorer outcomes than patients without generalized joint laxity, irrespective of the type of graft. Comparison of grafts used showed that, in patients with generalized joint laxity, BPTB graft provided significantly better stability and functional outcomes than hamstring graft at both 2- and 5-year follow-ups. Comparisons between serial outcomes measured at 2 and 5 years demonstrated that stability and functional outcomes deteriorated over time in patients with generalized joint laxity. Conclusions Less satisfactory stability and functional outcomes were noted in patients with generalized joint laxity, compared to patients without generalized joint laxity. Comparisons of stability and functional outcomes after ACL reconstruction in patients with generalized joint laxity between two different grafts demonstrated that BPTB graft achieves better results than hamstring graft. Level of evidence III, a retrospective cohort study.

Purpose Due to the increased importance of revision ACL reconstruction, this study aims to evaluate the outcome 4 years after the surgery, compare two revision strategies and identify factors that influence the results. Methods Seventy-nine patients who received a revision ACL reconstruction were retrospectively evaluated. All patients were assessed with an average follow-up of 4.4 years (range 3.3–5.5 years). The results of patients treated with a quadriceps autograft were compared with those treated with a hamstring autograft. Results Ninety-seven percent of patients had a KT-1000 side-to-side difference of ≤ 5 mm (mean 1.7 ± 2.0 mm). Pivot-shift test was absent or minor in 95%. In the SLTH-test, 70% of patients reached 90% of the contralateral side. The mean Lysholm score on follow-up was 83 ± 12 (56% excellent/good). The mean IKDC 2000 subjective evaluation score was 81 ± 14 (58% normal/almost normal). The median Tegner activity score was 6 (range 3–10), a median of 2 levels worse than before the first injury. Return to sport rate was 89% but only 34% of patients reached their pre-injury sport level. Most common cause for this reduction was fear of another injury. Three patients suffered a re-rupture. Patients with a hamstring autograft performed pivoting sports more often, but had worse pivot-shift results compared to those with a quadriceps autograft. No significant influence was seen for other parameters. Young, male patients with a high activity level and no chondral damage had the best results. Conclusion Through revision ACL reconstruction, the goal of stabilizing the knee can be achieved in the majority of patients. However, a good function and a high activity level are significantly less common in these patients. The main reason for this is fear of a renewed ACL-injury. Both quadriceps and hamstring autografts were able to achieve a good outcome. Young, male, patients with a normal BMI, a high activity level and without cartilage damage seem to benefit the most from revision ACL surgery. The discrepancy between the good laxity restoration and the lower activity rate should therefore be a main point in clinical counseling when deciding for or against revision ACL-Reconstruction. Level of evidence III.

Purpose The current study investigated the distribution of hamstrings graft size and body mass index and any potential effect on the risk of revision surgery in a large prospective cohort of patients undergoing ACL reconstruction. More specifically, the aim of the study was to investigate whether larger graft size or smaller BMI would decrease the risk of revision after ACL reconstruction. Methods A total of 4029 patients, prospectively registered in the Norwegian Knee Ligament Registry, were included in the study. Univariate Kaplan–Meier survival analyses (with log-rank tests) and the Cox proportional hazard (PH) regression model were applied to compare risk of revision between groups of patients. Mutual adjustment for gender, age, activity at the time of injury and fixation method of the graft was performed. Results Graft sizes spanned from 5.5 to 11.0 mm and the median of 8.0 mm was reported in 42% of patients in the cohort. BMI was reported from 15 to 57 with a median of 25. 46% of patients were classified as overweight (WHO standards), while 23% of patients were obese. At a median of 2.5 years after surgery, 150 patients had undergone revision surgery. Although certain effects were seen in the unadjusted analyses, neither graft size (diameter) nor patient BMI did affect the risk of undergoing revision surgery in the adjusted analyses. Conclusions Graft size and BMI was not found to be independent risk factors for undergoing ACL revision surgery. In contrast to other studies, graft size of 8 mm or larger did not have a better outcome than smaller graft sizes. A relatively large group of overweight patients undergoing ACL surgery reflects the general increase in weight seen in Western societies. Although the current study differs from previous findings, it might indicate that graft diameter is less important than previously stated. Level of evidence Cohort study, II.