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This article develops a framework for analyzing the risks of poverty in terms of prevalences (share of the population with a risk) and penalties (increased probability of poverty associated with a risk). A comparison of the four major risks (low education, single motherhood, young headship, and unemployment) across 29 rich democracies reveals there is greater variation in penalties than prevalences. The United States has high poverty partly because it has the highest penalties despite below average prevalences. Also, U.S. poverty in 2013 would be worse with prevalences from 1970 or 1980. There is little evidence that penalties discourage prevalences, while welfare generosity significantly moderates the penalties for unemployment and low education. The authors conclude that a focus on risks does not provide a convincing explanation of poverty, single motherhood may be the least important of the risks, and studies based solely on the United States are constrained by potentially large sample selection biases.

School systems worldwide wrestle with school leader recruitment, preparation and retention challenges. This article presents and discusses findings from the Researching Sustainable School Leadership project, which shows that while most leaders value the leadership development opportunities they receive, most headteachers do not feel fully prepared when they first take on the role. Meanwhile, the task of leading schools is becoming more complex and challenging. Drawing on Shulman’s notion of signature pedagogies, we examine the extent to which the national headship preparation programmes in England (National Professional Qualification for Headship) and Scotland (Into Headship) equip newly appointed headteachers to think, perform and act as professionals. We argue that there is no overarching signature pedagogy for headship preparation common to both programmes. Instead, we suggest that the programmes represent distinct ‘national’ signature pedagogies. The National Professional Qualification for Headship prioritises domain-specific knowledge, while Into Headship seeks to balance leadership knowledge with wider aspects, including self-awareness and professional values. The programmes have deep and implicit structures which reflect and reinforce the two national systems: England’s emphasis on ‘what works’ and school effectiveness, and Scotland’s commitment to partnership and ethical, place-based education. The article concludes by highlighting the importance of experience for leadership formation and socialisation, asking whether and how prospective headteachers could be helped to better curate and reflect on their experiences of leading.

We aimed to examine the association between women's empowerment and childhood nutritional status while accounting for the mediating role of household headship structure. Cross‐country, cross‐sectional quantitative data from the most recent Demographic and Health Surveys (2015–2018) were used. Women's empowerment was measured as a composite index of participation in household decision‐making, attitude towards domestic violence, and asset ownership. Childhood nutrition status was measure as anaemia (haemoglobin concentration < 110g/L), stunting (height‐for‐age z‐scorescore <−2) and the co‐occurrence of anaemia and stunting. Applying the Lewbel two‐stage least squares, women's migration status was used as an instrumental variable. We used data on 25,665 woman‐child dyads from eight sub‐Saharan African countries: Burundi (2016), Ethiopia (2016), Guinea (2018), Malawi (2016), Mali (2018), Zimbabwe (2015), Uganda (2016), and Tanzania (2015). The women were in their reproductive ages (15–49 years) and children were under 5 years old. The findings showed that an increase in women's empowerment index reduces children's likelihood of being anaemic and having a co‐occurrence of anaemia and stunting [coeff (SE), −0.114 (0.025) and −0.072 (0.032), respectively]. Specifically, an increase in asset ownership or decision‐making dimensions of empowerment significantly reduces the likelihood of anaemia and the co‐occurrence of anaemia and stunting among children. Children of empowered women from male‐headed households were more likely to be anaemic and be concurrently anaemic and stunted compared to their counterparts whose mothers were from female‐headed households. Interventions designed to improve childhood nutrition through women's empowerment approaches need to consider asset ownership and instrumental agency of women while acknowledging the mediating effect of household headship typology. Women's autonomy in asset ownership and decision‐making reduces anaemia and the co‐occurrence of anaemia and stunting in children. Children of empowered women belonging to male‐headed households had poorer nutritional status than those in households with empowered female heads. Key messages The mediating role of household headship in women's empowerment and childhood nutrition nexus was explored in eight sub‐Saharan African countries. Overall, an increase in women's empowerment significantly reduces anaemia and the co‐occurrence of anaemia and stunting in children. Specifically, women's autonomy in asset ownership and decision‐making reduces anaemia and the co‐occurrence of anaemia and stunting in children. Children of empowered women belonging to male‐headed households had poorer nutritional status than those in households with empowered female heads.

The traditional per-capita based poverty measurements that ignore the heterogeneity in household size and composition (and hence the potential economies of scale in consumption) in female-headed households (FHHs) and male-headed households (MHHs), appear to underestimate the incidence of poverty of FHHs. Using two waves of Household Income and Expenditure Survey data (2012/2013 and 2016) collected by the Department of Census and Statistics for Sri Lanka, this study examines whether there is a difference between the level of food consumption economies of scale materialised by MHHs and FHHs, and whether FHHs overrepresent the poor after economies of scale in food consumption is incorporated when estimating poverty measurements in Sri Lanka. The Engel curves and implied equivalence scales were used for the empirical analysis. Our results indicate that de-jure FHHs materialise higher economies of scale in food consumption than de-facto FHHs and MHHs, and that the incidence of poverty is higher among de-jure FHHs even after economies of scale for food consumption are allowed for. Adjusting the poverty measurements for consumption economies of scale is critical to identify the poorest of the poor and enhance their welfare.

Though gender dimensions are widely thought to influence adaptive activities of households (such as responses to climate change), there is little quantitative research, covering large scales, indicating the presence or magnitude of such impacts. We investigate adaptation in terms of changes in household farming practices of maize in Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. While controlling for a number of household, site- and activity-specific characteristics, we investigate impacts of three types of gender variables on adaptation: roles, household headship and forecast information . Our measures of adaptation include counts of changed farming activities and probabilities of undertaking a given activity, with activity-specific controls for categories of types of adaptations. Results suggest that drivers of adaptation frequently depend on the specific category of activity being undertaken. Nonetheless, within this heterogeneous context, we find the following general results. For roles , relative to situations where both men and women are involved, some activities dominated by women and men alone are not prone to adaptation. For household headship , male-headed households are more prone to adaptation for some categories of activities, but specific roles of the non-head spouse may be an important consideration. For forecast information, providing information to only women does not affect adaptation, with more promising results if information is provided to both men and women. Overall, our results suggest the importance of understanding gendered relations within households and highlight potential problems with development programmes that just focus on women for promoting change.

Background The research literature finds a positive relationship between couple religiosity and relationship quality, but because public discourse highlights religious victims of domestic violence, we questioned whether couple religiosity prevents negative relationship outcomes as well as it promotes positive ones. Purpose This article compares rates of intimate partner violence (IPV) and infidelity among couples with different levels of religious commitment. We further interrogated whether the belief that the man is the head of the household increased couples' risk of IPV or infidelity. Methods We used Global Family and Gender Survey data from eleven countries. This was an online survey of adults ages 18 to 50 that used a representative panel for the United States, but used opt-in panels in Australia, France, Ireland, United Kingdom, Canada, Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru. We limited our analytic sample to the 9920 men and women in heterosexual relationships (6791 married and 3128 cohabiting). We also analyzed the United States probability sample separately from our pooled sample. Results Couples with nominal or unequal religiosity (less/mixed religious couples) had higher rates of infidelity than either highly religious couples or couples in which neither partner exhibited much religiosity (shared secular couples). Infidelity was generally similar between highly religious couples and shared secular couples, but in the US women in highly religious couples did cheat less. We found no differences in IPV—measured by both women's reports of victimization and men's reports of perpetration—according to couple religiosity. Further, the belief that the man is the head of the household did not influence couples' risk of either IPV or infidelity across the entire sample. In Latin America, however, patriarchal men in shared secular couples perpetrated IPV significantly more often than their egalitarian or more religious counterparts. Conclusions and Implications Our Latin American evidence hints that patriarchy may be a more dangerous ideology for secular couples than for religious couples. Our more general conclusion is that even though negative relationship outcomes are not more common among religious couples, the resources religious traditions have at their disposal to discourage violence within intimate partnerships seem tragically underutilized.

In a male-dominated international migration system, women are more likely to head households after the exit of migrants. We decompose the impact of sending an international migrant into an effect attributable to a change in the gender of the household head and other mechanisms. We find that the effect attributable to a shift from a male-to-a female household head due to migration is negative for economic activities and expenditure indicators. Our results suggest that some households are forced to weigh the benefits of sending an international migrant against the costs of switching to a female household head.

The mobilized masculinity of democracies today is often presented as either a natural way for men to respond to the economic and political challenges of globalization or as a return to the patriarchal style of politics of the past. This article argues instead for an understanding of liberal democracy itself as gendered, being the collective masculinity of brotherhoods representing rivalrous nations. The first great transition from patriarchies and monarchies to brotherhoods and democracies is not being unmade now but facing a second transition to a different understanding of gender and power. This normative rise of a partnership model in families and politics is incomplete and highly contested everywhere. In the United States, it has become a partisan conflict expressed in gender terms. The Republican defense of the brotherhood state and its exclusive version of national good is countered by a newer but increasingly institutionalized vision of democracies as representing women and men equally. By more explicitly demasculinizing family headship and political leadership, social justice movements and the Democratic Party symbolically resist the restoration of gender norms privileging breadwinners and brotherhoods.

Purpose â€“ The main purpose of this study was to explore primary headteachers’ perceptions of their professional and organisational socialisation within their novice years as school leaders. There is a lack of studies exploring primary headteachers’ socialisation within the Malaysian primary education context.   Methodology â€“ A total of nine primary headteachers from three states were purposely selected and interviewed to obtain their perceptions on the professional socialisation they received before and after their appointment and the strategies that they employed within their organisational socialisation process.   Findings â€“ The study revealed that the primary headteachers employed their own organisational socialisation strategies in order to be accepted as a new member of the school. These were relatively diverse but accorded with their school’s values and culture. However, in terms of their professional socialisation, there were various findings: some mentioned the lack of support programs while others acknowledged receiving quite helpful programmes within their initial years of headship. The findings and the implications for the improvement of primary headteachers’ socialisation are discussed.   Significance â€“ This study provides supplementary literature that explores primary headteachers’ organisational and professional socialisation within the Malaysian schooling context. This study notes some practical and theoretical implications for improving the prospective headteachers’ training and their leadership development which aim to enhance the leadership qualities of future primary school leaders.