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Relapsing fever is the most frequent bacterial disease in Africa. Four main vector / pathogen complexes are classically recognized, with the louse Pediculus humanus acting as vector for B. recurrentis and the soft ticks Ornithodoros sonrai, O. erraticus and O. moubata acting as vectors for Borrelia crocidurae, B. hispanica and B. duttonii, respectively. Our aim was to investigate the epidemiology of the disease in West, North and Central Africa. From 2002 to 2012, we conducted field surveys in 17 African countries and in Spain. We investigated the occurrence of Ornithodoros ticks in rodent burrows in 282 study sites. We collected 1,629 small mammals that may act as reservoir for Borrelia infections. Using molecular methods we studied genetic diversity among Ornithodoros ticks and Borrelia infections in ticks and small mammals. Of 9,870 burrows investigated, 1,196 (12.1%) were inhabited by Ornithodoros ticks. In West Africa, the southern and eastern limits of the vectors and Borrelia infections in ticks and small mammals were 13°N and 01°E, respectively. Molecular studies revealed the occurrence of nine different Ornithodoros species, including five species new for science, with six of them harboring Borrelia infections. Only B. crocidurae was found in West Africa and three Borrelia species were identified in North Africa: B. crocidurae, B. hispanica, and B. merionesi. Borrelia Spirochetes responsible for relapsing fever in humans are highly prevalent both in Ornithodoros ticks and small mammals in North and West Africa but Ornithodoros ticks seem absent south of 13°N and small mammals are not infected in these regions. The number of Ornithodoros species acting as vector of relapsing fever is much higher than previously known.

Tick-borne spotted fever group Rickettsia (SFGR) poses a significant threat to public health worldwide. The cofeeding behavior of ticks attaching host animals, such as hedgehogs, has been identified as a potential mechanism for transmitting SFGR between infected and uninfected ticks, potentially increasing the prevalence of SFGR. However, the overall positive rate of SFGR in free-living ticks remains relatively low, suggesting that the role of tick-cofeeding in amplifying SFGR prevalence may not be as substantial as previously believed. To explore the impact of tick-cofeeding hedgehogs on the natural transmission of SFGR, to clarify the underlying hypotheses, and to provide robust data to support targeted prevention and control strategies for spotted fever, this study developed a transmission model using tick-cofeeding hedgehogs that simulates the natural transmission process. Both Rickettsia -infected and uninfected tick populations were established and used for cofeeding on mice or hedgehogs. Among formerly uninfected nymphs that cofed on mice, 75.61% acquired Rickettsia after engorgement, but this infection rate dropped sharply to 9.68% after molting. In contrast, formerly uninfected adults that cofed on hedgehogs showed a 100% infection rate after engorgement. However, the infection rates declined significantly in their offspring, with only 11.12% of normal-hatching eggs and 3.12% of larvae testing positive. Additionally, we observed mortality in infected engorged adults and their eggs. Our results demonstrate that while tick-cofeeding on hedgehogs can lead to a high positive rate of Rickettsia in ticks, the infections acquired through cofeeding fail to sustain this high positivity rate due to several mechanisms. Firstly, rickettsiae obtained through cofeeding or blood meals do not consistently establish infections in all recipient ticks, resulting in a significant decline in positive rates as ticks progress to subsequent developmental stages. Secondly, adult ticks infected via cofeeding tend to reduce the infection rate in their offspring through various mechanisms, including tick mortality caused by rickettsiae, egg hatching failure, and a low transovarial transmission rate. Additionally, in natural settings, infections from other pathogens may similarly contribute to tick mortality and reduced egg hatching. This study elucidates why rickettsiae maintain a low prevalence in nature and evaluates the actual effects of tick-cofeeding on pathogen distribution among ticks. While tick-cofeeding on host animals have been considered important amplifiers of SFGR prevalence, our findings indicate that their impact is not as significant as previously assumed.

The western European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) and the northern white-breasted hedgehog (E. roumanicus) are natural hosts of the tick Ixodes hexagonus, the vector of tick-borne pathogens such as the Borreliella bacteria responsible for Lyme disease. The aim of this study was to identify these pathogens in ticks collected from hedgehogs in northwestern Poland and to assess their genetic diversity by molecular analysis of the detected pathogens based on the flaB gene and the mag-trnI intergenic spacer. Among 101 hedgehogs examined, 737 ticks were found on 56 (55.45%) individuals, including 501 females of I. hexagonus. Borreliella spirochete infection was confirmed in 9 females of I. hexagonus (1.8%) obtained from 4 (3.96%) hedgehogs, detecting Borreliella (Bl.) afzelii (8/89%) and Bl. spielmanii (1/11%). Phylogenetic analysis based on the flaB gene and the mag-trnI intergenic spacer showed a lack of diversity in Bl. afzelii detected in I. hexagonus ticks collected from hedgehogs as well as little diversity against reference strains detected in small mammals and ticks collected from them. The results confirm that hedgehogs play an important role in the circulation of the detected spirochete species, at least as hosts of I. hexagonus ticks infected with them, indicating their potential to spread Borreliella spirochetes.

Background European hedgehogs ( Erinaceus europaeus ) are urban dwellers and host both Ixodes ricinus and Ixodes hexagonus . These ticks transmit several zoonotic pathogens like Borrelia burgdorferi ( sensu lato ), Anaplasma phagocytophilum , Rickettsia helvetica , Borrelia miyamotoi and “ Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis”. It is unclear to what extent hedgehogs in (sub) urban areas contribute to the presence of infected ticks in these areas, which subsequently pose a risk for acquiring a tick-borne disease. Therefore, it is important to investigate to what extent hedgehogs contribute to the enzootic cycle of these tick-borne pathogens, and to shed more light at the mechanisms of the transmission cycles involving hedgehogs and both ixodid tick species. Methods Engorged ticks from hedgehogs were collected from (sub) urban areas via rehabilitating centres in Belgium. Ticks were screened individually for presence of Borrelia burgdorferi ( sensu lato ), Borrelia miyamotoi , Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Rickettsia helvetica and “ Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis” using PCR-based methods. Infection rates of the different pathogens in ticks were calculated and compared to infection rates in questing ticks. Results Both Ixodes hexagonus ( n  = 1132) and Ixodes ricinus ( n  = 73) of all life stages were found on the 54 investigated hedgehogs. Only a few hedgehogs carried most of the ticks, with 6 of the 54 hedgehogs carrying more than half of all ticks (624/1205). Borrelia miyamotoi , A. phagocytophilum , R. helvetica and B. burgdorferi genospecies ( Borrelia afzelii , Borrelia bavariensis and Borrelia spielmanii ) were detected in both I. hexagonus and I. ricinus. Anaplasma phagocytophilum , R. helvetica , B. afzelii , B. bavariensis and B. spielmanii were found significantly more in engorged ticks in comparison to questing I. ricinus . Conclusions European hedgehogs seem to contribute to the spread and transmission of tick-borne pathogens in urban areas. The relatively high prevalence of B. bavariensis , B. spielmanii , B. afzelii , A. phagocytophilum and R. helvetica in engorged ticks suggests that hedgehogs contribute to their enzootic cycles in (sub) urban areas. The extent to which hedgehogs can independently maintain these agents in natural cycles, and the role of other hosts (rodents and birds) remain to be investigated.

The role of domestic and peridomestic animals in vector-borne diseases is critical as they share a common environment with people having the potential to extend the network of pathogen transmission to humans. In the present study, amplicon sequencing was employed to characterize the microbial communities associated with five flea species ( Archaeopsylla erinacei , Ctenocephalides felis , Spilopsyllus cuniculi , Pulex irritans and Ctenocephalides canis ) collected from dogs, cats, and hedgehogs in Andalusia (Spain). The analysis focused on identifying the presence and infection rate of pathogenic bacteria within these synanthropic flea populations. The higher relative abundance of the Phylum Pseudomonadota was primarily attributed to the presence of the endosymbiont Wolbachia , along with consistently elevated levels of the genera Rickettsia and Bartonella across all flea species. This study reports, for the first time, the detection of Babesia sp. in all tested flea species, with the highest abundance observed in S. cuniculi collected from cats, emphasizing the need for further investigation into its potential implications as vectors. Our results also demonstrate that the microbiota composition of fleas is largely influenced by the host they parasitize. The study of microbiota allowed for the ecological separation of flea species, with individuals from these five species clustering distinctly each other.

The North African hedgehog ( Atelerix algirus ) is an introduced species from Northwest Africa and is currently distributed in the Canary Islands. This species of hedgehog has been studied as a reservoir of enteropathogens, including Cryptosporidium spp. However, there are no data at species level. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to identify the Cryptosporidium species present in a population of hedgehogs ( n  = 36) in the Canary Islands. Molecular screening was performed using conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting the small subunit ribosomal RNA ( 18S rRNA ) gene of Cryptosporidium spp. Seven of the 36 fecal samples (19.45%) were positive and confirmed by nested PCR targeting the 18S rRNA gene and Sanger sequencing. Cryptosporidium parvum and Cryptosporidium muris were identified in 11.1% (4/36) and 5.6% (2/36) of the samples, respectively, while one sample could only be identified at the genus level. The zoonotic subtypes IIdA15G1 ( n  = 1), IIdA16G1b ( n  = 1), and IIdA22G1 ( n  = 1) of C. parvum were identified by nested PCR followed by analysis of the 60 kDa glycoprotein ( gp60 ) gene sequence. This study is the first genetic characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. in A. algirus , identifying zoonotic species and subtypes of the parasite.

Background European hedgehogs ( Erinaceus europaeus ) are frequently infected with a variety of endoparasites. The hedgehogs’ synanthropic lifestyle results in frequent contact with pets and humans, posing the risk of parasite spillover from a One Health perspective. Methods The present study assessed the endoparasite fauna and excretion intensity of 531 European hedgehogs presented at wildlife rehabilitation centres in Germany. Faecal samples were examined by the combined sedimentation–flotation method, the Baermann technique and FAST est® CRYPTO-GIARDIA Strips (MEGACOR Diagnostik GmbH) from July 2018 to May 2021. Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. positive samples were further differentiated via amplification of the 60 kDa glycoprotein gene and the β-giardin gene, respectively. In addition, molecular identification of adult intestinal Capillaria spp. and Acanthocephala spp. was achieved via the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 ( cox-1 ) gene. Results Endoparasite prevalence was 95.5% (507/531). The most frequently detected helminth species was Crenosoma striatum (77.6%, [412/531]), followed by Capillaria erinacei (68.2%, [362/531]), Capillaria putorii (68.2%, [362/531]), Capillaria aerophila (26.7%, [142/531]), Brachylaemus erinacei (5.1%, [27/531]), undetermined trematode eggs (0.2% [1/531]) and Hymenolepis nana (0.2%, [1/531]). Detected protozoans included coccidia (12.8%, [68/531]), Cryptosporidium spp. (11.9%, [63/531]) and Giardia spp. (1.3%, [7/531]). Acanthocephala spp. were present in 1.5% (8/531) of samples, and two examined specimens were molecularly identified as Plagiorhynchus cylindraceus . Infections with C. aerophila showed a significant seasonal pattern and a negative correlation with bodyweight. For the remaining parasites, no significant associations with age, bodyweight, survival or seasonality were observed. Molecular typing revealed the presence of Cryptosporidium parvum subtype IIa prevalence of 2.1%, [11/531]), IIc (0.9%, [5/531]) and IId (0.6%, [3/531]), Cryptosporidium erinacei subtype XIIIa (6.1%, [33/531]) and XIIIb (0.2%, [1/531]), and Giardia duodenalis (sub)assemblage A(1) (1.3%, [7/531]). Conclusions The hedgehogs showed high infection rates with pulmonary and gastrointestinal helminths. Molecular analysis clarified the species distribution of the gastrointestinal Capillaria , consisting of C. erinacei and C. putorii , disproving the existence of the previously described Capillaria ovoreticulata . Furthermore, molecular typing of Cryptosporidium and Giardia spp. revealed zoonotic subtypes and (sub)assemblages. In addition, C. aerophila and H. nana may infect humans. Therefore, precautionary measures should be taken when handling hedgehogs to mitigate the zoonotic risk. Graphical Abstract

Wildlife plays a fundamental role in maintaining the complex balance of the ecology of tick-borne diseases, serving as both a host for ticks and a potential ecological role for the pathogens they carry. The present study investigated the presence of zoonotic pathogenic bacteria in hedgehogs ( Erinaceus europaeus ), a wildlife species found in the northwestern region of Iran. Specifically, the study focused on the detection of Francisella spp. using the PCR method. A total of 31 blood samples and 106 ticks collected from hedgehogs were analyzed. Among the ticks, 10 samples ( n  = 106; 9.43%; 95% CI: 5.20%-16.50%) tested positive for Francisella spp., while none of the blood samples ( n  = 31; 0%; 95% CI: 0%-11.03%) were positive. Furthermore, for the RD1 gene, which is used to identify Francisella tularensis subsp. holarctica , 5 out of the 10 positive Francisella spp. samples showed positive results. In this study, the PCR method was employed to detect the DNA of zoonotic bacteria ( Francisella spp.). Our findings demonstrated that ticks collected from wildlife, particularly hedgehogs, were infected with zoonotic pathogenic bacteria, including Francisella spp. The presence of these pathogens was confirmed using a nested-PCR approach. These results underscore the ecological importance of wildlife as key components in the maintenance and circulation of tick-borne pathogens, reflecting their central role in the intricate web of interactions among hosts, vectors, and the environment.

Myiasis due to parasitic fly larvae (maggots) can have major consequences for animal health and welfare. The European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus is frequently presented in rehabilitation centres and veterinary practices due to health problems, including myiasis. In the present study, 557 hedgehogs presented at wildlife rehabilitation centres in Northern Germany during 2018-2021 were examined for the presence of dipteran eggs and larvae. Overall, 15.6% of animals carried fly eggs and/or larvae. Four different dipteran species were identified by PCR and sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS-2) region. Lucilia sericata was detected on 25.3% [22/87] of affected hedgehogs, followed by Calliphora vicina (12.6% [11/87]), Lucilia ampullacea (11.5% [10/87]) and Lucilia caesar (9.2% [8/87]). Myiasis prevalence was significantly higher during the summer compared to spring and autumn. Fly eggs were found all over the body, while larvae were detected most frequently in the body's natural orifices and in wounds. Regarding rehabilitation success, myiasis occurred significantly more frequently in animals that died or were euthanized compared to those released back into the wild. Although the high death rate probably arose in combination with underlying disease, this illustrates that myiasis represents a serious health issue that should be diagnosed and treated immediately.

Background European hedgehogs ( Erinaceus europaeus ) are hosts for Ixodes hexagonus and I. ricinus ticks, which are vectors for zoonotic microorganisms. In addition, hedgehogs may carry several enteric zoonoses as well. It is unclear to what extent a presence of pathogens in hedgehogs poses a risk to public health, as information on the presence of zoonotic agents in hedgehogs in urban areas is relatively scarce. Methods Engorged ticks and hedgehog faeces were collected from rehabilitating hedgehogs. Ticks were screened individually for presence of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, B. miyamotoi , Anaplasma phagocytophilum , and Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis using PCR-based assays. Faecal samples were screened for presence of Campylobacter, Salmonella , Giardia, Cryptosporidium , and extended-spectrum cephalosporin-resistant- Escherichia coli (ESC)-resistant E. coli , using both culture-based and PCR-based methods. Results Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Borrelia genospecies B. afzelii , B. spielmanii , B. garinii , and B. burgdorferi sensu stricto were detected in both I. hexagonus and I. ricinus ticks. Despite their widespread distribution in the Netherlands, B. miyamotoi and Candidatus N. mikurensis were not detected in collected ticks. Analysis of hedgehog faecal samples revealed the presence of Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica and Campylobacter jejuni . In addition, ESC-resistant E. coli were observed in high prevalence in faecal samples, but no Shiga-toxin producing -E.coli were detected. Finally, potentially zoonotic protozoan parasites were observed in hedgehog faecal samples as well, including Giardia duodenalis assemblage A, Cryptosporidium parvum subtypes IIaA17G1R1 and IIcA5G3, and C. hominis subtype IbA10G2. Conclusions European hedgehogs in (sub)urban areas harbor a number of zoonotic agents, and therefore may contribute to the spread and transmission of zoonotic diseases. The relatively high prevalence of B. burgdorferi s.l. and A. phagocytophilum in engorged ticks, suggests that hedgehogs contribute to their enzootic cycles in (sub)urban areas. To what extent can hedgehogs maintain the enteric zoonotic agents in natural cycles, and the role of (spill-back from) humans remains to be investigated.