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Estimating the impact of child health investments on adult living standards entails multiple methodological challenges, including the lack of experimental variation in health status, an inability to track individuals over time, and accurately measuring living standards and productivity in low-income settings. This study exploits a randomized school health intervention that provided deworming treatment to Kenyan children, and uses longitudinal data to estimate impacts on economic outcomes up to 20 y later. The effective respondent tracking rate was 84%. Individuals who received two to three additional years of childhood deworming experienced a 14% gain in consumption expenditures and 13% increase in hourly earnings. There are also shifts in sectors of residence and employment: treatment group individuals are 9% more likely to live in urban areas, and experience a 9% increase in nonagricultural work hours. Most effects are concentrated among males and older individuals. The observed consumption and earnings benefits, together with deworming’s low cost when distributed at scale, imply that a conservative estimate of its annualized social internal rate of return is 37%, a high return by any standard.

We conducted a controlled before-and-after trial to evaluate the impact of an onsite urban sanitation intervention on the prevalence of enteric infection, soil transmitted helminth re-infection, and diarrhea among children in Maputo, Mozambique. A non-governmental organization replaced existing poor-quality latrines with pour-flush toilets with septic tanks serving household clusters. We enrolled children aged 1–48 months at baseline and measured outcomes before and 12 and 24 months after the intervention, with concurrent measurement among children in a comparable control arm. Despite nearly exclusive use, we found no evidence that intervention affected the prevalence of any measured outcome after 12 or 24 months of exposure. Among children born into study sites after intervention, we observed a reduced prevalence of Trichuris and Shigella infection relative to the same age group at baseline (<2 years old). Protection from birth may be important to reduce exposure to and infection with enteric pathogens in this setting.

Soil-transmitted helminths are targeted for elimination as a public health problem. This study assessed whether, with high coverage, community-wide mass drug administration (MDA) could lead to transmission interruption. DeWorm3 is an open-label, community cluster-randomised controlled trial in Benin, India, and Malawi. In each country, a single governmental administrative unit (population ≥80 000 individuals) with soil-transmitted helminth endemicity and participation in at least five rounds of community-wide MDA for lymphatic filariasis, was divided into 40 clusters (population ≥1650 individuals), which were randomly assigned (1:1) to community-wide MDA versus school-based deworming. Laboratory personnel were masked to exposure status and all investigators were masked to post-baseline outcome data until unmasking. In all clusters, preschool-aged and school-aged children received school-based deworming as per national guidelines for 3 years. In intervention clusters, door-to-door community-wide MDA (a single oral dose of 400 mg albendazole) was delivered to all eligible individuals biannually by community drug distributors for 3 years. All individuals aged 12 months and older in India and Benin and aged 24 months and older in Malawi were eligible for treatment, except women in the first trimester of pregnancy, those with adverse reactions to benzimidazoles, those who were acutely ill or intoxicated, or those reporting treatment within the previous 2 weeks. The co-primary outcomes were individual-level prevalence and cluster-level transmission interruption (ie, weighted prevalence of predominant species of ≤2%) of the predominant soil-transmitted helminth species, assessed by quantitative PCR (qPCR) 24 months after the last round of MDA. The analysis set contained a subset of randomly selected participants per cluster who enrolled in the endline assessment, provided a stool sample, and had a qPCR result. All individuals who received treatment were eligible for inclusion in the safety population. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT03014167), and is active but not recruiting. Between Oct 10, 2017, and Feb 17, 2023, 120 clusters (40 clusters per country, comprising 357 716 individuals) were randomly assigned, 60 to community-wide MDA and 60 to school-based deworming. 184 030 (51·4%) individuals in the clusters at baseline were female, 173 663 (48·5%) were male, and 23 (<0·1%) were other. The analysis set consisted of 58 827 individuals in the control group and 58 554 in the intervention group 24 months after the cessation of all deworming, Necator americanus prevalence (the predominant species at all sites) in the community-wide MDA group was lower than the school-based deworming group in Benin (adjusted prevalence ratio [aPR] 0·44 [95% CI 0·34–0·58]), India (0·41 [0·32–0·52]), and Malawi (0·40 [0·34–0·46]). Transmission interruption was achieved for N americanus in 11 (55%) of 20 intervention clusters versus six (30%) of 20 control clusters in Benin (p=0·20), in one (5%) intervention cluster versus no control clusters in India (p=1·00), and in no clusters in either group in Malawi (p=1·00). 984 adverse events were reported among 487 participants over the study, of which 32 among 13 participants resulted in hospitalisation and were classified as serious adverse events (three of which were related to study procedures). Soil-transmitted helminth transmission interruption might be possible in focal geographies but does not appear to be programmatically feasible within the evaluated timeframe. Community-wide MDA should be considered as an alternative strategy to school-based deworming programmes to improve equity and outcomes in helminth-endemic areas. The Gates Foundation.

More than a quarter of the world's population is at risk of infection with the soil-transmitted helminths Ascaris lumbricoides, hookworm (Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus), Trichuris trichiura, and Strongyloides stercoralis. Infected children and adults present with a range of medical and surgical conditions, and clinicians should consider the possibility of infection in individuals living in, or returning from, endemic regions. Although safe and effective drugs are donated free to endemic countries, only half of at-risk children received treatment in 2016. This Seminar describes the epidemiology, lifecycles, pathophysiology, clinical diagnosis, management, and public health control of soil-transmitted helminths. Previous work has questioned the effect of population-level deworming; however, it remains beyond doubt that treatment reduces the severe consequences of soil-transmitted helminthiasis. We highlight the need for refined diagnostic tools and effective control options to scale up public health interventions and improve clinical detection and management of these infections.

Background Opisthorchis viverrini (OV) and soil-transmitted helminths (STH) are two of the most common helminths contributing to the Neglected Tropical Disease (NTDs) burden in the Lower Mekong Basin. Although mass drug administration is the cornerstone of control programs to reduce morbidity caused by these infections, this approach has limitations in preventing re-infections. Elimination requires additional measures such as reservoir host treatment, improved hygiene and health education to reinforce MDA's impact. This study aims to examine the impact of a scalable multi-component One Health Helminth Elimination program in the Lower Mekong Basin (HELM) that combines human praziquantel (PZQ) and albendazole (ALB) treatment with a program that includes the “ Magic Glasses ” and the “ Lawa Model ” interventions with health promotion at their core. Methods This study will employ a cluster randomized controlled trial (cRCT) in 18 rural communities (with sub-district or villages as cluster units) across Cambodia, Laos and Thailand. The control arm will receive one round of PZQ/ALB treatment, while in the intervention arm, multi-component HELM program will be implemented, which includes PZQ/ALB treatment together with the Magic Glasses and Lawa Model interventions. OV and STH infections levels will be evaluated in individuals aged 5–75 years at baseline and will be repeated at follow-up (12 months after the HELM intervention), using modified formalin ethyl-acetate concentration technique and quantitative PCR. The primary outcome of the study will be cumulative incidence of human OV and STH infections. Outcomes between the study arms will be compared using generalized linear mixed models, accounting for clustering. Discussion Evidence from this trial will quantify the impact of a multi-component One Health control strategy in interrupting Ov and STH infections in the Lower Mekong Basin. Trial registration Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR): ACTRN12622000353796. Prospectively registered 28 February 2022.

Current control strategies for soil-transmitted helminths (STH) emphasize morbidity control through mass drug administration (MDA) targeting preschool- and school-age children, women of childbearing age and adults in certain high-risk occupations such as agricultural laborers or miners. This strategy is effective at reducing morbidity in those treated but, without massive economic development, it is unlikely it will interrupt transmission. MDA will therefore need to continue indefinitely to maintain benefit. Mathematical models suggest that transmission interruption may be achievable through MDA alone, provided that all age groups are targeted with high coverage. The DeWorm3 Project will test the feasibility of interrupting STH transmission using biannual MDA targeting all age groups. Study sites (population ≥80,000) have been identified in Benin, Malawi and India. Each site will be divided into 40 clusters, to be randomized 1:1 to three years of twice-annual community-wide MDA or standard-of-care MDA, typically annual school-based deworming. Community-wide MDA will be delivered door-to-door, while standard-of-care MDA will be delivered according to national guidelines. The primary outcome is transmission interruption of the STH species present at each site, defined as weighted cluster-level prevalence ≤2% by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), 24 months after the final round of MDA. Secondary outcomes include the endline prevalence of STH, overall and by species, and the endline prevalence of STH among children under five as an indicator of incident infections. Secondary analyses will identify cluster-level factors associated with transmission interruption. Prevalence will be assessed using qPCR of stool samples collected from a random sample of cluster residents at baseline, six months after the final round of MDA and 24 months post-MDA. A smaller number of individuals in each cluster will be followed with annual sampling to monitor trends in prevalence and reinfection throughout the trial. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03014167.

Improved sanitation has been hypothesized to reduce soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections by reducing the prevalence and concentration of STH eggs/larvae in soil. We evaluated the effect of a randomized sanitation program (providing households with an improved dual-pit latrine, tools for child/animal feces management, and behavioral messaging) on reducing the prevalence and concentration of STH eggs in soil from household courtyards. We collected soil samples from 1405 households enrolled in the sanitation intervention (n = 419) and control (n = 914) groups of a cluster-randomized controlled trial (WASH Benefits) in rural Bangladesh approximately 2 years after the initiation of the interventions. We analyzed samples for Ascaris lumbricoides , Trichuris trichiura , and hookworm eggs by microscopy. We estimated prevalence ratios (PR) and egg count ratio (ECR) to compare the prevalence of STH eggs and arithmetic and geometric mean egg counts for STH eggs per gram of soil in the sanitation and control arms. Among intervention households, latrines achieved high and sustained user uptake by adults while child open defecation remained common and most households did not dispose of child feces hygienically. In courtyard soil from control households, the prevalence of any STH eggs was 75.7% and the prevalence of any larvated STH eggs was 67.3%. A . lumbricoides was detected in 63.0% of control samples and T . trichiura in 55.7% of control samples; hookworm was not detected in any sample. In the control arm, the arithmetic mean egg count for any STH was 3.96 eggs/dry gram, while the geometric mean was 1.58 eggs/dry gram. There was no difference between the intervention and control groups in the prevalence of any STH eggs (PR = 0.98 (95% CI: 0.91, 1.05)) or mean egg counts (ECR = 0.08 (95% CI: -0.10, 0.26) for geometric mean and 0.07 (95% CI: -0.22, 0.37) for arithmetic mean). Adjusted models gave similar results. A compound-level sanitation intervention that provided improved latrines and tools for disposal of child and animal feces did not have an impact on STH eggs in soil. In order to effectively reduce the prevalence and concentration of STH eggs in the environment, sustained, widespread use of sanitation strategies to isolate and hygienically dispose of child and animal feces may need to complement traditional strategies for containment of adult human feces. Trial Registration: NCT01590095 .

Helminths, such as Ascaris lumbricoides, infect more than a billion people globally. In this cluster-randomized trial in China, a school-based simple educational program was shown to substantially decrease the incidence of these infections in schoolchildren. A third of the global population, mainly in developing countries, is infected with soil-transmitted helminths, which are intestinal parasitic nematode worms. 1 Infection with these parasitic worms is associated with poverty in rural locations, inadequate sanitation and waste disposal, a lack of clean water, and poor hygiene and is common in areas with limited access to health care and preventive measures. 2 Roundworms ( Ascaris lumbricoides ) are the largest and most prevalent soil-transmitted helminths, accounting for 1 billion infections; whipworms ( Trichuris trichiura ) and hookworms ( Necator americanus and Ancylostoma duodenale ) each infect 600 million to 800 million persons. Estimates . . .

Soil transmitted helminths (STH) infect >1.5 billion people. Mass drug administration (MDA) effectively reduces infection; however, there is evidence for rapid reinfection and risk of potential drug resistance. We conducted a randomized controlled trial in Bangladesh (WASH Benefits, NCT01590095) to assess whether water, sanitation, hygiene and nutrition interventions, alone and combined, reduce STH in a setting with ongoing MDA. In 2012-2013, we randomized 720 clusters of 5551 pregnant women into water treatment, sanitation, handwashing, combined water+sanitation+handwashing (WSH), nutrition, nutrition+WSH (N+WSH) or control arms. In 2015-2016, we enrolled 7795 children, aged 2-12 years, of 4102 available women for STH follow-up and collected stool from 7187. We enumerated STH infections with Kato-Katz. We estimated intention-to-treat intervention effects on infection prevalence and intensity. Participants and field staff were not blinded; laboratory technicians and data analysts were blinded. Prevalence among controls was 36.8% for A. lumbricoides, 9.2% for hookworm and 7.5% for T. trichiura. Most infections were low-intensity. Compared to controls, the water intervention reduced hookworm by 31% (prevalence ratio [PR] = 0.69 (0.50,0.95), prevalence difference [PD] = -2.83 (-5.16,-0.50)) but did not affect other STH. Sanitation improvements reduced T. trichiura by 29% (PR = 0.71 (0.52,0.98), PD = -2.17 (-4.03,-0.38)), had a similar borderline effect on hookworm and no effect on A. lumbricoides. Handwashing and nutrition interventions did not reduce any STH. WSH and N+WSH reduced hookworm prevalence by 29-33% (WSH: PR = 0.71 (0.52,0.99), PD = -2.63 (-4.95,-0.31); N+WSH: PR = 0.67 (0.50,0.91), PD = -3.00 (-5.14,-0.85)) and marginally reduced A. lumbricoides. Effects on infection intensity were similar. In a low-intensity infection setting with MDA, we found modest but sustained hookworm reduction from water treatment and combined WSH interventions. Impacts were more pronounced on STH species with short vs. long-term environmental survival. Our findings suggest possible waterborne transmission for hookworm. Water treatment and sanitation improvements can augment MDA to interrupt STH transmission. NCT01590095.

We investigated the impact of helminths and malaria infection on Kaposi's sarcoma associated herpesvirus (KSHV) seropositivity, using samples and data collected from a cluster-randomised trial of intensive versus standard anthelminthic treatment. The trial was carried out in 2012 to 2016 among fishing communities on Lake Victoria islands in Uganda. Plasma samples from 2881 participants from two household surveys, the baseline (1310 participants) and the final (1571 participants) surveys were tested for KSHV IgG antibody responses to K8.1 and ORF73 recombinant proteins using ELISA. The baseline survey was carried out before the trial intervention while the final survey was carried out after three years of the trial intervention. Additionally, a subset sample of 372 participants from the final survey was tested for IgE, IgG and IgG4 antibody concentrations to S. mansoni adults worm antigen (SWA) and S. mansoni egg antigen (SEA) using ELISA. Infection by helminths (S. mansoni, N. americanus, T. trichiura and S. stercoralis) was diagnosed using real-time PCR, urine circulating cathodic antigen (CCA) and stool microscopy (Kato-Katz method) while malaria infection was diagnosed using microscopy. We analysed the relationship between helminth and malaria infections and KSHV seropositivity using regression modelling, allowing for survey design. At baseline, 56% of the participants were male while 48% of the participants were male in the final survey. The most prevalent helminth infection was S. mansoni (at baseline 52% and 34% in the final survey by microscopy, 86% by CCA and 50% by PCR in the final survey). KSHV seropositivity was 66% (baseline) and 56% (final survey) among those 1-12 years and >80% in those 13+ years in both surveys; malaria parasitaemia prevalence was 7% (baseline) and 4% (final survey). At baseline, individuals infected with S. mansoni (detected by microscopy) were more likely to be KSHV seropositive (aOR = 1.86 (1.16, 2.99) p = 0.012) and had higher anti-K8.1 antibody levels (acoefficient = 0.03 (0.01, 0.06) p = 0.02). In the final survey, S. mansoni (by microscopy, adjusted Odds Ratio (aOR = 1.43 (1.04-1.95), p = 0.028) and malaria parasitaemia (aOR = 3.49 (1.08-11.28), p = 0.038) were positively associated with KSHV seropositivity. Additionally, KSHV seropositive participants had higher S. mansoni-specific IgE and IgG antibody concentrations in plasma. Furthermore, HIV infected individuals on cART were less likely to be KSHV seropositive compared to HIV negative individuals (aOR = 0.46 (0.30, 0.71) p = 0.002). Schistosoma species skew the immune response towards Th2 and regulatory responses, which could impact on KSHV reactivation if co-infected with both organisms.