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The human body is host to large numbers of bacteriophages (phages)–a diverse group of bacterial viruses that infect bacteria. Phage were previously regarded as bystanders that only impacted immunity indirectly via effects on the mammalian microbiome. However, it has become clear that phages also impact immunity directly, in ways that are typically anti-inflammatory. Phages can modulate innate immunity via phagocytosis and cytokine responses, but also impact adaptive immunity via effects on antibody production and effector polarization. Phages may thereby have profound effects on the outcome of bacterial infections by modulating the immune response. In this review we highlight the diverse ways in which phages interact with human cells. We present a computational model for predicting these complex and dynamic interactions. These models predict that the phageome may play important roles in shaping mammalian-bacterial interactions.

A male American dog tick, Dermacentor variabilis (Say) was removed from a human at Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, Canada, in April 2013. This represents the northernmost record of this species in Canada, which was approximately 1100 km north of its current distributional limits. Reports of adventitious ticks highlight the importance of human activity for transferring ticks to non-endemic areas.

The COVID-19 pandemic has strengthened the interest in the biological mechanisms underlying the complex interplay between infectious agents and the human host. The spectrum of phenotypes associated with the SARS-CoV-2 infection, ranging from the absence of symptoms to severe systemic complications, raised the question as to what extent the variable response to coronaviruses (CoVs) is influenced by the variability of the hosts’ genetic background. To explore the current knowledge about this question, we designed a systematic review encompassing the scientific literature published from Jan. 2003 to June 2020, to include studies on the contemporary outbreaks caused by SARS-CoV-1, MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 (namely SARS, MERS and COVID-19 diseases). Studies were eligible if human genetic variants were tested as predictors of clinical phenotypes. An ad hoc protocol for the rapid review process was designed according to the PRISMA paradigm and registered at the PROSPERO database (ID: CRD42020180860). The systematic workflow provided 32 articles eligible for data abstraction (28 on SARS, 1 on MERS, 3 on COVID-19) reporting data on 26 discovery cohorts. Most studies considered the definite clinical diagnosis as the primary outcome, variably coupled with other outcomes (severity was the most frequently analysed). Ten studies analysed HLA haplotypes (1 in patients with COVID-19) and did not provide consistent signals of association with disease-associated phenotypes. Out of 22 eligible articles that investigated candidate genes (2 as associated with COVID-19), the top-ranked genes in the number of studies were ACE2 , CLEC4M (L-SIGN), MBL , MxA ( n = 3), ACE , CD209 , FCER2 , OAS-1 , TLR4 , TNF-α ( n = 2). Only variants in MBL and MxA were found as possibly implicated in CoV-associated phenotypes in at least two studies. The number of studies for each predictor was insufficient to conduct meta-analyses. Studies collecting large cohorts from different ancestries are needed to further elucidate the role of host genetic variants in determining the response to CoVs infection. Rigorous design and robust statistical methods are warranted.

Mosquito-borne diseases are a major burden on human health worldwide and their eradication through vector control methods remains challenging. In particular, the success of vector control interventions for targeting diseases such as malaria is under threat, in part due to the evolution of insecticide resistance, while for other diseases effective control solutions are still lacking. The rate at which mosquitoes encounter and bite humans is a key determinant of their capacity for disease transmission. Future progress is strongly reliant on improving our understanding of the mechanisms leading to a mosquito bite. Here, we review the biological factors known to influence the attractiveness of mosquitoes to humans, such as body odour, the skin microbiome, genetics and infection by parasites. We identify the knowledge gaps around the relative contribution of each factor, and the potential links between them, as well as the role of natural selection in shaping vector–host–parasite interactions. Finally, we argue that addressing these questions will contribute to improving current tools and the development of novel interventions for the future. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Novel control strategies for mosquito-borne diseases'.

When acute GVHD is refractory to glucocorticoids, no consensus exists on the best therapy. In a phase 3, randomized trial, ruxolitinib led to a response in 62% of patients at day 28 and in 40% at day 56, as compared with 39% at day 28 and 22% at day 56 with the investigator’s choice of therapy.

Standard treatment for GVHD is glucocorticoids, but for glucocorticoid-refractory GVHD, no intervention has emerged as standard second-line treatment. This trial with 329 patients compared ruxolitinib with control (chosen from among 10 possible therapies) in patients with glucocorticoid-refractory chronic GVHD. Response at week 24 was 50% with ruxolitinib as compared with 26% with control therapy.

Non-polio enteroviruses are emerging viruses known to cause outbreaks of polio-like infections in different parts of the world with several cases already reported in Asia Pacific, Europe and in United States of America. These outbreaks normally result in overstretching of health facilities as well as death in children under the age of five. Most of these infections are usually self-limiting except for the neurological complications associated with human enterovirus A 71 (EV-A71). The infection dynamics of these viruses have not been fully understood, with most inferences made from previous studies conducted with poliovirus. Non-poliovirus enteroviral infections are responsible for major outbreaks of hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD) often associated with neurological complications and severe respiratory diseases. The myriad of disease presentations observed so far in children calls for an urgent need to fully elucidate the replication processes of these viruses. There are concerted efforts from different research groups to fully map out the role of human host factors in the replication cycle of these viral infections. Understanding the interaction between viral proteins and human host factors will unravel important insights on the lifecycle of this groups of viruses. This review provides the latest update on the interplay between human host factors/processes and non-polio enteroviruses (NPEV). We focus on the interactions involved in viral attachment, entry, internalization, uncoating, replication, virion assembly and eventual egress of the NPEV from the infected cells. We emphasize on the virus- human host interplay and highlight existing knowledge gaps that needs further studies. Understanding the NPEV-human host factors interactions will be key in the design and development of vaccines as well as antivirals against enteroviral infections. Dissecting the role of human host factors during NPEV infection cycle will provide a clear picture of how NPEVs usurp the human cellular processes to establish an efficient infection. This will be a boost to the drug and vaccine development against enteroviruses which will be key in control and eventual elimination of the viral infections.

Background Zooprophylaxis is a technique in which blood-seeking vectors are diverted to non-host animals in order to lower blood-feeding rates on human hosts. The success of this technique depends on the host preference of the vector being targeted. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of l -lactic acid (Abate) to divert malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae from feeding on human host. Methods A 14-month-old female goat was treated with Abate, a formulation incorporating l -lactic acid into a slow-release matrix. This formulation was applied on the fur of the goat’s back and neck. The treated animal was then presented to Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto ( s.s .) as a prospective host in a semi-field environment (‘mosquito sphere’) together with either an untreated animal or a human. The number of mosquitoes caught to each host choice offered were compared. Results Goat treated with the l -lactic acid formulation successfully attracted An. gambiae at higher rates (70.2%) than the untreated ones (29.8%). Furthermore, An. gambiae s.s. were attracted to a treated goat at an equivalent degree (47.3%) as to their preferred human host (52.7%), even when the preferred host was present in the same environment. Conclusions The findings indicate that human host-seeking mosquitoes can be diverted into feeding on non-preferred hosts despite the close proximity of their favoured host, hence reducing chances for the transmission of blood-borne parasites.

Background Rhodesiense sleeping sickness is caused by infection with T. b rhodesiense parasites resulting in an acute disease that is fatal if not treated in time. The aim of this study was to understand the global impact of active T. b rhodesiense infection on the patient’s immune response in the early and late stages of the disease. Methods RNASeq was carried out on blood and cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) samples obtained from T. b. rhodesiense infected patients. The control samples used were from healthy individuals in the same foci. The Illumina sequenced reads were analysed using the Tuxedo suite pipeline (Tophat, Cufflinks, Cuffmerge, Cuffdiff) and differential expression analysis carried out using the R package DESeq2. The gene enrichment and function annotation analysis were done using the ToppCluster, DAVID and InnateDB algorithms. Results We previously described the transcriptomes of T. b rhodesiense from infected early stage blood ( n  = 3) and late stage CSF ( n  = 3) samples from Eastern Uganda. We here identify human transcripts that were differentially expressed (padj < 0.05) in the early stage blood versus healthy controls ( n  = 3) and early stage blood versus late stage CSF. Differential expression in infected blood showed an enrichment of innate immune response genes whereas that of the CSF showed enrichment for anti-inflammatory and neuro-degeneration signalling pathways. We also identified genes (C1QC, MARCO, IGHD3–10) that were up-regulated (log 2 FC > 2.5) in both the blood and CSF. Conclusion The data yields insights into the host’s response to T. b rhodesiense parasites in the blood and central nervous system. We identified key pathways and signalling molecules for the predominant innate immune response in the early stage infection; and anti-inflammatory and neuro-degeneration pathways associated with sleep disorders in second stage infection. We further identified potential blood biomarkers that can be used for diagnosis of late stage disease without the need for lumbar puncture.