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Standard methods of impact evaluation often leave significant gaps between what we know about development effectiveness and what we want to know—gaps that stem from distortions in the market for knowledge. The author discusses how evaluations might better address these knowledge gaps and so be more relevant to the needs of practitioners. It is argued that more attention needs to be given to identifying policy-relevant questions (including the case for intervention), that a broader approach should be taken to the problems of internal validity (including heterogeneity and spillover effects), and that the problems of external validity (including scaling up) merit more attention by researchers.

This book reviews quantitative methods and models of impact evaluation. The formal literature on impact evaluation methods and practices is large, with a few useful overviews. Yet there is a need to put the theory into practice in a hands-on fashion for practitioners. This book also details challenges and goals in other realms of evaluation, including monitoring and evaluation (M&E), operational evaluation, and mixed-methods approaches combining quantitative and qualitative analyses. This book is organized as follows. Chapter two reviews the basic issues pertaining to an evaluation of an intervention to reach certain targets and goals. It distinguishes impact evaluation from related concepts such as M&E, operational evaluation, qualitative versus quantitative evaluation, and ex-ante versus ex post impact evaluation. Chapter three focuses on the experimental design of an impact evaluation, discussing its strengths and shortcomings. Various non-experimental methods exist as well, each of which are discussed in turn through chapters four to seven. Chapter four examines matching methods, including the propensity score matching technique. Chapter five deal with double-difference methods in the context of panel data, which relax some of the assumptions on the potential sources of selection bias. Chapter six reviews the instrumental variable method, which further relaxes assumptions on self-selection. Chapter seven examines regression discontinuity and pipeline methods, which exploit the design of the program itself as potential sources of identification of program impacts. Specifically, chapter eight presents a discussion of how distributional impacts of programs can be measured, including new techniques related to quantile regression. Chapter nine discusses structural approaches to program evaluation, including economic models that can lay the groundwork for estimating direct and indirect effects of a program. Finally, chapter ten discusses the strengths and weaknesses of experimental and non-experimental methods and also highlights the usefulness of impact evaluation tools in policy making.

What roles can metrics, particularly intermediate indicators, play in informing the design and implementation of policies and actions with climate co-benefits? While the precise definition of indicators differs across sectors and strands of the literature, performance metrics typically measure not only the final outcomes, but also inputs, processes, and output measurements of actions. Indicators frameworks have become a widespread feature of policy and project monitoring across both affluent and lower-income economies for reporting, learning and, in some cases, target- or incentive-based management. Indicators play an important and positive role in project management and policy making, even where they are not tied to explicit targets or incentive mechanisms. In particular, the use of intermediate indicators can provide early and timely reporting of progress and setbacks, allowing for policy learning and discussion of best practice across projects or programmes. Policy relevance: A successful transition to low-carbon growth trajectories depends on the ability of governments to implement actions and policies to initiate and guide low-carbon development. The experience from public and private actors in other sectors shows that suitable indicators are necessary to provide the information to manage policy implementation. In contrast, the UNFCCC framework only requires reporting on CO 2 emissions (final outcomes). This raises the question of whether additional indicators are required to support policy design, implementation of domestic action and best-practice learning. It further raises questions concerning the extent to which such reporting can be generic or should be associated with specific actions, and which reporting can be harmonized internationally or needs to be country-specific.

This is the sixth Annual Review of Development Effectiveness (ARDE), covering the year 2002, whose findings indicate that the Bank ' s country, sector, and global programs are consistent with the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) themes, increasingly focused on poverty reduction. The review assesses, and evaluates the outcomes of its development assistance, indicating that at the project level, outcomes continue to improve, with seventy seven percent satisfactory ratings in FY01 (exceeding for a second year the Strategic Compact target of seventy five percent); over two thirds of projects were rated as likely, or highly likely to be sustained; and, one half rated as having substantial, or higher institutional development impacts. Sector strategies show increasing attention to poverty linkages, although findings suggest intensified efforts in the identification of relevant development outcomes, and corresponding intermediate indicators, as well as strengthening capacities, and incentives to monitor, and evaluate development outcomes. The Bank must move from recognizing the multi-sectoral determinants of development outcomes, to developing and implementing cross-sectoral strategies. Above all, the Bank needs to fully assess the implications at the corporate, country, sector, and global levels of the MDGs, and address these implications in its use of lending, and administrative resources.

Synthetic chemistry aims to build up molecular complexity from simple feedstocks 1 . However, the ability to exert precise changes that manipulate the connectivity of the molecular skeleton itself remains limited, despite possessing substantial potential to expand the accessible chemical space 2 , 3 . Here we report a reaction that ‘deletes’ nitrogen from organic molecules. We show that N -pivaloyloxy- N -alkoxyamides, a subclass of anomeric amides, promote the intermolecular activation of secondary aliphatic amines to yield intramolecular carbon–carbon coupling products. Mechanistic experiments indicate that the reactions proceed via isodiazene intermediates that extrude the nitrogen atom as dinitrogen, producing short-lived diradicals that rapidly couple to form the new carbon–carbon bond. The reaction shows broad functional-group tolerance, which enables the translation of routine amine synthesis protocols into a strategy for carbon–carbon bond constructions and ring syntheses. This is highlighted by the use of this reaction in the syntheses and skeletal editing of bioactive compounds. Nitrogen is ‘deleted’ from secondary amines using anomeric amide reagents, which react with the amine to form an isodiazene, after which nitrogen gas is released and the resulting carbon radicals combine to form a carbon–carbon bond.

Europe's growth will have to be golden in yet another sense. Economic prosperity has brought to Europeans the gift of longer lives, and the continent's population has aged a lot over the last five decades. Over the next five, it will age even more by 2060; almost a third of Europeans will be older than 65 years. Europe will have to rebuild its structures to make fuller use of the energies and experience of its more mature population's people in their golden years. These desires and developments already make the European growth model distinct. Keeping to the discipline of the golden rule would make it distinguished. This report shows how Europeans have organized the six principal economic activities trade, finance, enterprise, innovation, labor, and government in unique ways. But policies in parts of Europe do not recognize the imperatives of demographic maturity and clash with growth's golden rule. Conforming growth across the continent to Europe's ideals and the iron laws of economics will require difficult decisions. This report was written to inform them. Its findings the changes needed to make trade and finance will not be as hard as those to improve enterprise and innovation; these in turn are not as arduous and urgent as the changes needed to restructure labor and government. Its message the remedies are not out of reach for a part of the world that has proven itself both intrepid and inclusive.

Automated synthesis platforms accelerate and simplify the preparation of molecules by removing the physical barriers to organic synthesis. This provides unrestricted access to biopolymers and small molecules via reproducible and directly comparable chemical processes. Current automated multistep syntheses rely on either iterative 1 – 4 or linear processes 5 – 9 , and require compromises in terms of versatility and the use of equipment. Here we report an approach towards the automated synthesis of small molecules, based on a series of continuous flow modules that are radially arranged around a central switching station. Using this approach, concise volumes can be exposed to any reaction conditions required for a desired transformation. Sequential, non-simultaneous reactions can be combined to perform multistep processes, enabling the use of variable flow rates, reuse of reactors under different conditions, and the storage of intermediates. This fully automated instrument is capable of both linear and convergent syntheses and does not require manual reconfiguration between different processes. The capabilities of this approach are demonstrated by performing optimizations and multistep syntheses of targets, varying concentrations via inline dilutions, exploring several strategies for the multistep synthesis of the anticonvulsant drug rufinamide 10 , synthesizing eighteen compounds of two derivative libraries that are prepared using different reaction pathways and chemistries, and using the same reagents to perform metallaphotoredox carbon–nitrogen cross-couplings 11 in a photochemical module—all without instrument reconfiguration. An automated synthesis instrument comprising a series of continuous flow modules that are radially arranged around a central switching station can achieve both linear and convergent syntheses.

Two-photon absorption (TPA) fluorescence imaging holds great promise in diagnostics and biomedicine owing to its unparalleled spatiotemporal resolution. However, the adaptability and applicability of currently available TPA probes, which act as a critical element for determining the imaging contrast effect, is severely challenged by limited photo-luminescence in vivo. This is particularly a result of uncontrollable aggregation that causes fluorescence quenching, and inevitable photo-oxidation in harsh physiological milieu, which normally leads to bleaching of the dye. Herein, we describe the remarkably enhanced TPA fluorescence imaging capacity of self-assembling near-infrared (NIR) cyanine dye-based nanoprobes (NPs), which can be explained by a photo-oxidation enhanced emission mechanism. Singlet oxygen generated during photo-oxidation enables chromophore dimerization to form TPA intermediates responsible for enhanced TPA fluorescence emission. The resulting NPs possess uniform size distribution, excellent stability, more favorable TPA cross-section and anti-bleaching ability than a popular TPA probe rhodamine B (RhB). These properties of cyanine dye-based TPA NPs promote their applications in visualizing blood circulation and tumoral accumulation in real-time, even to cellular imaging in vivo. The photo-oxidation enhanced emission mechanism observed in these near-infrared cyanine dye-based nanoaggregates opens an avenue for design and development of more advanced TPA fluorescence probes. Two-photon absorption (TPA) affords unparalleled spatiotemporal resolution for bioimaging, but the photo-oxidation tends to weaken the photoluminescence in vivo, limiting the usefulness of TPA probes. Here, the authors report self-assembling near-infrared cyanine dye-based nanoprobes of enhanced TPA fluorescence imaging capacity based on a photo-oxidation enhanced emission mechanism.

N- functionalized aziridines, which are both useful intermediates and important synthetic targets, can be envisioned as arising from the addition of nitrenes ( i.e ., NR fragments) to olefinic substrates. The exceptional reactivity of most nitrenes, in particular with respect to unimolecular decomposition, prevents general application of nitrene-transfer to the synthesis of N -functionalized aziridines. Here we demonstrate N -aryl aziridine synthesis via 1) olefin aziridination with N -aminopyridinium reagents to afford N -pyridinium aziridines followed by 2) Ni-catalyzed C–N cross-coupling of the N -pyridinium aziridines with aryl boronic acids. The N -pyridinium aziridine intermediates also participate in ring-opening chemistry with a variety of nucleophiles to afford 1,2-aminofunctionalization products. Mechanistic investigations indicate aziridine cross-coupling proceeds via a noncanonical mechanism involving initial aziridine opening promoted by the bromide counterion of the Ni catalyst, C–N cross-coupling, and finally aziridine reclosure. Together, these results provide new opportunities to achieve selective incorporation of generic aryl nitrene equivalents in organic molecules. Aziridines are useful intermediates, present in important synthetic targets. Here, the authors show a strategy for the synthesis of N-aryl aziridines based on N-aminopyridinium reagents followed by Ni-catalyzed C–N cross-coupling of N-pyridinium aziridines with aryl boronic acids.

PurposePeat extraction rapidly removes carbon from the peatland carbon store and furthermore leads to substantial losses of carbon from the extraction site by stimulating decomposition and erosion. Aim of this study is to evaluate whether the Product Environmental Footprint (PEF) approach is suitable for assessing the environmental impacts of white and black peat used in growing media as well as to provide generic data collected from growing media producers and the scientific literature. It is not the aim of this study to compare different land use options for peatlands.MethodPEF is developed in order to make environmental product declaration claims more reliable, comparable and verifiable across the EU, and to increase consumer confidence in eco-labels and environmental impact information. For PEF-compliant studies all land use activities must be considered. For peat extraction either pristine peatland or previously drained peatland used for forestry or agriculture has to be transformed. Hence, the suitability of land use-related PEF indicators is also investigated.ResultsDiesel consumed for peat extraction, electricity used for peat processing and transport are the main contributors to acidification. Fuel production and consumption are the main contributors to human toxicity, with heavy metals to air and freshwater the contributing emissions. Ionising radiation, ozone depletion and resource depletion of minerals and metals are mainly caused by the electricity used. Climate change increased from 26 kg CO2eq per m3 processed white peat to 51 kg CO2eq per m3 processed black peat. The use of peat causes substantially higher GHG than the previous life cycle stages combined; white peat causes approximately 183 kg CO2eq per m3 and black peat 257 kg CO2eq per m3.ConclusionsEnvironmental impacts caused by peat are variable and depend on a number of spatial and temporal factors. Although most indicators used for PEF are suitable for assessing peat systems, that does not apply for the land use indicator and is at least questionable for the water use indicator, respectively, its weighting factor. Consequently, it is neither possible to identify the most relevant impact categories based on normalised and weighted results nor to calculate an overall single score for peat containing growing media. Since normalisation and weighting are mandatory steps for PEF conform impact assessment, the current PEF approach is not suitable to assess peat as intermediate product without adaptation of the land use indicator.