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MOXIE is a technology demonstration that addresses the Mars 2020 (Perseverance) objective of preparing for future human exploration by demonstrating In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) in the form of dissociating atmospheric CO 2 into O 2 . The primary goals of the MOXIE project are to verify and validate the technology of Mars ISRU as a springboard for the future, and to establish achievable performance requirements and design approaches that will lead to a full-scale ISRU system based on MOXIE technology. MOXIE has three top-level requirements: to be capable of producing at least 6 g/hr of oxygen in the context of the Mars 2020 mission (assuming atmospheric intake at 5 Torr, typical of Jezero Crater, and 0 ∘ C , typical of the rover interior); to produce oxygen with > 98 % purity; and to meet these first two requirements for at least 10 operational cycles after delivery. Since MOXIE is expected to operate in all seasons and at all times of day and night on Mars, these requirements are intended to be satisfied under worst-case environmental conditions, including during a dust storm, if possible.

Geopolymer is a synthetic amorphous aluminosilicate material that can be used as an inorganic binder to replace ordinary Portland cement. Geopolymer is produced by mixing aluminosilicate source materials with alkali activators and curing the mixture either at ambient or low temperatures. Geopolymer research for lunar-based construction is actively underway to enable astronauts to stay on the moon for long periods. This research has been spurred on by earnest discussions of in situ resource utilization (ISRU). Recent research shows that the lunar regolith simulant-based geopolymers have high application potential to protect astronauts from the harsh moon environment. However, not all the simulants perfectly reproduce the lunar regolith, and the characteristics of the lunar regolith vary depending on the site. Issues remain regarding the applicability of geopolymer technology to contribute to ISRU through an elaborate and systematic plan of experiments. In this paper, the potential of geopolymers is assessed as a lunar-based construction material with the latest research results. Future work to develop the lunar regolith-based geopolymer technology is also proposed.

As we aim to expand human presence in space, we need to find viable approaches to achieve independence from terrestrial resources. Space biomining of the Moon, Mars and asteroids has been indicated as one of the promising approaches to achieve in-situ resource utilization by the main space agencies. Structural and expensive metals, essential mineral nutrients, water, oxygen and volatiles could be potentially extracted from extraterrestrial regolith and rocks using microbial-based biotechnologies. The use of bioleaching microorganisms could also be applied to space bioremediation, recycling of waste and to reinforce regenerative life support systems. However, the science around space biomining is still young. Relevant differences between terrestrial and extraterrestrial conditions exist, including the rock types and ores available for mining, and a direct application of established terrestrial biomining techniques may not be a possibility. It is, therefore, necessary to invest in terrestrial and space-based research of specific methods for space applications to learn the effects of space conditions on biomining and bioremediation, expand our knowledge on organotrophic and community-based bioleaching mechanisms, as well as on anaerobic biomining, and investigate the use of synthetic biology to overcome limitations posed by the space environments.

Sustainable water management is a critical challenge in space exploration, where the limited availability of resources requires innovative approaches to ensure astronauts' survival on long‐duration missions. This narrative review explores the key technologies and methods involved in water recycling, in situ resource utilization (ISRU), and bioregenerative life support systems (BLSS) essential for supporting human life in space. The Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) aboard the International Space Station has demonstrated significant progress in recycling water from urine, sweat, and humidity, achieving up to 93% recovery. However, challenges remain in reducing energy consumption, improving system durability, and ensuring water quality. ISRU technologies, particularly those aimed at extracting water ice from lunar and Martian environments, offer promising solutions for future missions, but they must overcome scalability and logistical hurdles. This review also highlights the potential of nanotechnology and AI‐driven autonomous systems in enhancing water purification and management. Nanomaterials like graphene oxide membranes could revolutionize filtration efficiency, while AI could optimize real‐time water quality monitoring and recycling processes. As space agencies push toward establishing colonies on the Moon and Mars, the development of sustainable, closed‐loop water systems will be pivotal to the success of these missions. Continued research and innovation are essential to ensuring water resources are efficiently managed for long‐term human presence in space.

The construction of lunar bases represents a fundamental challenge for deep space exploration, lunar research, and the exploitation of lunar resources. In-situ resource utilization (ISRU) technology constitutes a pivotal tool for constructing lunar bases. Using lunar regolith to create geopolymers as construction materials offers multiple advantages as an ISRU technique. This paper discusses the principle of geopolymer for lunar regolith, focusing on the reaction principle of geopolymer. It also analyzes the applicability of geopolymer under the effects of the lunar surface environment and the differences between the highland and mare lunar regolith. This paper summarizes the characteristics of existing lunar regolith simulants and the research on the mechanical properties of lunar regolith geopolymers using lunar regolith simulants. Highland lunar regolith samples contain approximately 36% amorphous substances, the content of silicon is approximately 28%, and the ratios of Si/Al and Si/Ca are approximately 1.5 and 2.6, respectively. They are more suitable as precursor materials for geopolymers than mare samples. The compressive strength of lunar regolith geopolymer is mainly in the range of 18~30 MPa. Sodium silicate is the most commonly utilized activator for lunar regolith geopolymers; alkalinity in the range of 7% to 10% and modulus in the range of 0.8 to 2.0 are suitable. A vacuum environment and multiple temperature cycles reduce the mechanical properties of geopolymers by 8% to 70%. Future research should be concentrated on the precision control of the lunar regolith’s chemical properties and the alkali activation efficacy of geopolymers in the lunar environment.

Background and aimsHigher plants represent an optimal tool to regenerate resources while producing food in Space. However, the configuration of fertile cultivation substrates based on extraterrestrial resources is still a challenge. We evaluated the adaptability of potato (Solanum tuberosum L., cv. ‘Colomba’) to the growth on six substrates: the MMS-1 Mars regolith simulant, alone (R100) and in mixture with 30% in vol. of green compost (R70C30), a fluvial sand, alone or mixed with 30% of compost (S100 and S70C30), a red soil from Sicily (RS), and a volcanic soil from Campania (VS).MethodsWe assessed the physicochemical properties of the substrates, and the physiological and biometric parameters of potato plants grown in pot on these substrates, in cold glasshouse.ResultsBoth R100 and S100 were alkaline (pH ≥ 8.6) and coarse-textured, lacking organic matter and pivotal macronutrients. The amendment with compost significantly lowered their alkaline pH and improved the chemical fertility. The sandy-loam textured VS was sub-alkaline, slightly calcareous, with higher organic C and nutrient availability than RS. This latter was neutral-to-sub-alkaline, clay textured, poorly calcareous, with significantly higher CEC than VS. Leaf CO2 assimilation rate was higher in plants grown in terrestrial soils and S100. Plant growth was greater in VS, R70C30 and S70C30, while it was reduced on R100. Plants produced healthy tubers on all the substrates.ConclusionMMS-1 regolith simulant was found poor in nutrients and unsuitable to sustain adequately the plant growth. Amendment with organic compost improved MMS-1 physiochemical properties and fertility and plant performance.

The water content of the upper layers of the surface of Mars is not yet quantified. Laboratory simulations are the only feasible way to investigate this in a controlled way on Earth, and then compare it with remote and in situ observations of spacecrafts on Mars. Describing the processes that may induce changes in the water content of the surface is critical to determine the present-day habitability of the Martian surface, to understand the atmospheric water cycle, and to estimate the efficiency of future water extraction procedures from the regolith for In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU). This paper illustrates the application of the SpaceQ facility to simulate the near-surface water cycle under Martian conditions. Rover Environmental Monitoring Station (REMS) observations at Gale crater show a non-equilibrium situation in the atmospheric H2O volume mixing ratio (VMR) at night-time, and there is a decrease in the atmospheric water content by up to 15 g/m2 within a few hours. This reduction suggests that the ground may act at night as a cold sink scavenging atmospheric water. Here, we use an experimental approach to investigate the thermodynamic and kinetics of water exchange between the atmosphere, a non-porous surface (LN2-chilled metal), various salts, Martian regolith simulant, and mixtures of salts and simulant within an environment which is close to saturation. We have conducted three experiments: the stability of pure liquid water around the vicinity of the triple point is studied in experiment 1, as well as observing the interchange of water between the atmosphere and the salts when the surface is saturated; in experiment 2, the salts were mixed with Mojave Martian Simulant (MMS) to observe changes in the texture of the regolith caused by the interaction with hydrates and liquid brines, and to quantify the potential of the Martian regolith to absorb and retain water; and experiment 3 investigates the evaporation of pure liquid water away from the triple point temperature when both the air and ground are at the same temperature and the relative humidity is near saturation. We show experimentally that frost can form spontaneously on a surface when saturation is reached and that, when the temperature is above 273.15 K (0 °C), this frost can transform into liquid water, which can persist for up to 3.5 to 4.5 h at Martian surface conditions. For comparison, we study the behavior of certain deliquescent salts that exist on the Martian surface, which can increase their mass between 32% and 85% by absorption of atmospheric water within a few hours. A mixture of these salts in a 10% concentration with simulant produces an aggregated granular structure with a water gain of approximately 18- to 50-wt%. Up to 53% of the atmospheric water was captured by the simulated ground, as pure liquid water, hydrate, or brine.

In-Situ Resource Utilisation (ISRU) is increasingly being seen as a viable and essential approach to constructing infrastructure for human habitation on the moon. Transporting materials and resources, from Earth to the Moon, is prohibitively expensive and not sustainable for long-term, large-scale development. Various fabrication technologies have been investigated in recent years, designed for extra-terrestrial exploration and settlement. This review presents a comprehensive study on the development of several sintering techniques of lunar regolith simulant to demonstrate its feasibility for ISRU on the moon. Various critical processing parameters are evaluated in pursuit of creating a structural material that can withstand the extreme lunar environment. Key outcomes are summarised and assessed to provide insight into their viability. Finally, current challenges are addressed and potential improvements, and avenues for further research, suggested.

Even though technological advances could allow humans to reach Mars in the coming decades, launch costs prohibit the establishment of permanent manned outposts for which most consumables would be sent from Earth. This issue can be addressed by in situ resource utilization: producing part or all of these consumables on Mars, from local resources. Biological components are needed, among other reasons because various resources could be efficiently produced only by the use of biological systems. But most plants and microorganisms are unable to exploit Martian resources, and sending substrates from Earth to support their metabolism would strongly limit the cost-effectiveness and sustainability of their cultivation. However, resources needed to grow specific cyanobacteria are available on Mars due to their photosynthetic abilities, nitrogen-fixing activities and lithotrophic lifestyles. They could be used directly for various applications, including the production of food, fuel and oxygen, but also indirectly: products from their culture could support the growth of other organisms, opening the way to a wide range of life-support biological processes based on Martian resources. Here we give insights into how and why cyanobacteria could play a role in the development of self-sustainable manned outposts on Mars.

The return to the Moon is an important short-term goal of NASA and other international space agencies. To minimize mission risks, technologies, such as rovers or regolith processing systems, must be developed and tested on Earth using lunar regolith simulants that closely resemble the properties of real lunar soil. So far, no singular lunar simulant can cover the multitude of use cases that lunar regolith involves, and most available materials are poorly characterized. To overcome this major gap, a unique modular system for flexible adaptable novel lunar regolith simulants was developed and chemically characterized in earlier works. To supplement this, the present study provides comprehensive investigations regarding geotechnical properties of the three base regolith simulant systems: TUBS-M, TUBS-T, and TUBS-I. To evaluate the engineering and flow properties of these heterogeneous materials under various conditions, shear tests, particle size analyses, scanning electron microscope observations, and density investigations were conducted. It was shown that small grains <25 µm (lunar dust) are highly compressive and cohesive even at low external stress. They are particularly important as a large amount of fine dust is present in lunar regolith and simulants (x50 = 76.7 to 96.0 µm). Further, ring shear and densification tests revealed correlations with damage mechanisms caused by local stress peaks for grains in the mm range. In addition, an explanation for the occurrence of considerable differences in the literature-based data for particle sizes was established by comparing various measurement procedures. The present study shows detailed geotechnical investigations of novel lunar regolith simulants, which can be used for the development of equipment for future lunar exploration missions and in situ resource utilization under realistic conditions. The results also provide evidence about possible correlations and causes of known soil-induced mission risks that so far have mostly been described phenomenologically.