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During social interaction, both participants are continuously active, each modifying their own actions in response to the continuously changing actions of the partner. This continuous mutual adaptation results in interactional synchrony to which both members contribute. Freely exchanging the role of imitator and model is a well-framed example of interactional synchrony resulting from a mutual behavioral negotiation. How the participants' brain activity underlies this process is currently a question that hyperscanning recordings allow us to explore. In particular, it remains largely unknown to what extent oscillatory synchronization could emerge between two brains during social interaction. To explore this issue, 18 participants paired as 9 dyads were recorded with dual-video and dual-EEG setups while they were engaged in spontaneous imitation of hand movements. We measured interactional synchrony and the turn-taking between model and imitator. We discovered by the use of nonlinear techniques that states of interactional synchrony correlate with the emergence of an interbrain synchronizing network in the alpha-mu band between the right centroparietal regions. These regions have been suggested to play a pivotal role in social interaction. Here, they acted symmetrically as key functional hubs in the interindividual brainweb. Additionally, neural synchronization became asymmetrical in the higher frequency bands possibly reflecting a top-down modulation of the roles of model and imitator in the ongoing interaction.

•Motor imitation significantly enhances motor proficiency and imagery quality compared to observation.•fNIRS imaging reveals increased activation in the primary somatosensory cortex following motor imitation.•A contrasting brain activation pattern is observed under sensory-motor conflict condition, supporting the direct matching hypothesis.•The study highlights sensory-motor congruence as crucial for effective imitation. Motor imitation is crucial for acquiring motor skills and social cognition, yet the theoretical understanding of its underlying mechanism remains partial. The direct matching hypothesis suggests that the overlap between observed and executed motions is crucial for effective motor imitation. This study aimed to investigate the behavioral benefits of motor imitation, and to validate its theoretical basis by examining its brain activation pattern during motor imagery. We recruited 56 college students and compared their motor proficiency and imagery quality after different learning strategies. Participants were randomly assigned to observation, observation with disturbance, imitation, or control groups. The observation with disturbance group was designed as a sensory-motor conflict condition to contrast with imitation where the sensory and motor representations aligned. The results showed that both motor imitation and observation enhanced motor proficiency with only imitation outperforming control group, and only imitation improved imagery quality. The functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) analysis revealed a significant increase in the primary somatosensory cortex activation following imitation, and a contrasting change pattern following observation with disturbance. The fNIRS results highlighted the necessity of sensory-motor overlap for effective motor imitation. These findings confirmed that motor imitation was an optimal strategy for motor learning, with the primary somatosensory cortex as the key neural substrate, and validated the direct matching hypothesis.

Group membership is a strong driver of everyday life in humans, influencing similarity judgments, trust choices, and learning processes. However, its ontogenetic development remains to be understood. This study investigated how group membership, age, sex, and identification with a team influenced 39- to 60-month-old children (N = 94) in a series of similarity, trust, and learning tasks. Group membership had the most influence on similarity and trust tasks, strongly biasing choices toward in-groups. In contrast, prior experience and identification with the team were the most important factors in the learning tasks. Finally, overimitation occurred most when the children's team, but not the opposite, displayed meaningless actions. Future work must investigate how these cognitive abilities combine during development to facilitate cultural processes.

Imitation is a key mechanism of human culture and underlies many of the intricacies of human social life, including rituals and social norms. Compared to other animals, humans appear to be special in their readiness to copy novel actions as well as those that are visibly causally irrelevant. This study directly compared the imitative behavior of human children to that of bonobos, our understudied great ape relatives. During an action-copying task involving visibly causally irrelevant actions, only 3- to 5-year-old children (N = 77) readily copied, whereas no bonobo from a large sample did (N = 46). These results highlight the distinctive nature of the human cultural capacity and contribute important insights into the development and evolution of human cultural behaviors.

In contemporary performance education, the Animal Exercise course is one of the core training modules for developing imitative behavior. Typically, instructors facilitate this process through guided demonstrations and task-based instruction, encouraging students to engage in both imitation and creative exploration. The pedagogical approach is therefore characterized by active student participation and a strong emphasis on experiential, practice-oriented learning. However, assessment in Animal Exercise courses still relies primarily on instructors’ subjective judgment, resulting in inconsistent and non-standardized evaluations. This hinders students’ ability to identify skill deficiencies and improve their course performance. To address this challenge, we propose a quantitative framework for evaluating imitative behavior using pose estimation, termed Human Pose Estimation–Imitative Behavior Analysis (HPE-IBA). Using this framework, we employ a standard RGB camera to collect motion data from both students and gorillas, extract three-dimensional joint coordinates, and compute dynamic joint angles with MediaPipe. We then apply correlation analysis to identify weakly correlated features and core joints, followed by two-way ANOVA to examine the effects of training status and gender on students’ imitation performance. Analysis of chest-beating and walking imitation reveals a statistically significant interaction between training status and gender (p< 0.01), primarily reflected in joint patterns such as the right elbow and right knee. The proposed framework not only enhances the application of pose estimation in acting education but also provides a foundation for broader applications in performance-based motion analysis.

Freezing of gait (FoG) is among the most disabling symptoms of Parkinson’s disease (PD) patients. Recent studies showed that action observation training (AOT) with repetitive practice of the observed actions represents a strategy to induce longer-lasting effects compared with standard physiotherapy. We investigated whether AOT may improve FoG and mobility in PD, when AOT is applied in a group-based setting. Sixty-four participants with PD and FoG were assigned to the experimental (AO) or control groups and underwent a 45-minute training session, twice a week, for 5 weeks. AOT consisted in physical training combined with action observation whereas the control group executed the same physical training combined with landscape-videos observation. Outcome measures (FoG questionnaire, Timed Up and Go test, 10-meter walking test, and Berg balance scale) were evaluated before training, at the end of training, and 4 weeks later (FU-4w). Both groups showed positive changes in all outcome measures at posttraining assessment. Improvements in FoG questionnaire, Timed Up and Go test, and Berg balance scale were retained at FU-4w evaluation only in the AOT group. AOT group-based training is feasible and effective on FoG and motor performance in PD patients and may be introduced as an adjunctive option in PD rehabilitation program.

In humans, the susceptibility to yawn contagion has been theoretically and empirically related to our capacity for empathy. Because of its relevance to evolutionary biology, this phenomenon has been the focus of recent investigations in non-human species. In line with the empathic hypothesis, contagious yawning has been shown to correlate with the level of social attachment in several primate species. Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) have also shown the ability to yawn contagiously. To date, however, the social modulation of dog contagious yawning has received contradictory support and alternative explanations (i.e., yawn as a mild distress response) could explain positive evidence. The present study aims to replicate contagious yawning in dogs and to discriminate between the two possible mediating mechanisms (i.e., empathic vs. distress related response). Twenty-five dogs observed familiar (dog's owner) and unfamiliar human models (experimenter) acting out a yawn or control mouth movements. Concurrent physiological measures (heart rate) were additionally monitored for twenty-one of the subjects. The occurrence of yawn contagion was significantly higher during the yawning condition than during the control mouth movements. Furthermore, the dogs yawned more frequently when watching the familiar model than the unfamiliar one demonstrating that the contagiousness of yawning in dogs correlated with the level of emotional proximity. Moreover, subjects' heart rate did not differ among conditions suggesting that the phenomenon of contagious yawning in dogs is unrelated to stressful events. Our findings are consistent with the view that contagious yawning is modulated by affective components of the behavior and may indicate that rudimentary forms of empathy could be present in domesticated dogs.

Human infants rapidly learn new skills and customs via imitation, but the neural linkages between action perception and production are not well understood. Neuroscience studies in adults suggest that a key component of imitation-identifying the corresponding body part used in the acts of self and other-has an organized neural signature. In adults, perceiving someone using a specific body part (e.g., hand vs. foot) is associated with activation of the corresponding area of the sensory and/or motor strip in the observer's brain-a phenomenon called neural somatotopy. Here we examine whether preverbal infants also exhibit somatotopic neural responses during the observation of others' actions. 14-month-old infants were randomly assigned to watch an adult reach towards and touch an object using either her hand or her foot. The scalp electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded and event-related changes in the sensorimotor mu rhythm were analyzed. Mu rhythm desynchronization was greater over hand areas of sensorimotor cortex during observation of hand actions and was greater over the foot area for observation of foot actions. This provides the first evidence that infants' observation of someone else using a particular body part activates the corresponding areas of sensorimotor cortex. We hypothesize that this somatotopic organization in the developing brain supports imitation and cultural learning. The findings connect developmental cognitive neuroscience, adult neuroscience, action representation, and behavioral imitation.

Observation contributes to motor learning. It was recently demonstrated that the observation of both a novice and an expert model (mixed observation) resulted in better learning of a complex spatiotemporal task than the observation of either a novice or an expert model. In experiment 1, we aimed to determine whether mixed observation better promotes learning due to the information that can be gained from two models who exhibit different skill levels or simply because multiple models, regardless of their level of expertise, better promote learning than would a single model. The results revealed that the observation of both an expert and a novice model resulted in better short-term retention than the observation of either two novice or two expert models. In experiment 2, we wanted to determine whether these benefits would last longer if physical practice trials were interspersed with observation. Mixed and (to some extent) expert observations resulted in better long-term retention than observation of a novice model. We suggest that alternating mixed/expert observation with physical practice trials makes one’s error more salient than when all observation trials are completed before one first starts performing the experimental task, which increases activation of the action observation network.

Group-living typically provides benefits to individual group members but also confers costs. To avoid incredulity and betrayal and allow trust and cooperation, individuals must understand the intentions and emotions of their group members. Humans attend to other's eyes and from gaze and pupil-size cues, infer information about the state of mind of the observed. In humans, pupil-size tends to mimic that of the observed. Here we tested whether pupil-mimicry exists in our closest relative, the chimpanzee (P. troglodytes). We conjectured that if pupil-mimicry has adaptive value, e.g. to promote swift communication of inner states and facilitate shared understanding and coordination, pupil-mimicry should emerge within but not across species. Pupillometry data was collected from human and chimpanzee subjects while they observed images of the eyes of both species with dilating/constricting pupils. Both species showed enhanced pupil-mimicry with members of their own species, with effects being strongest in humans and chimpanzee mothers. Pupil-mimicry may be deeply-rooted, but probably gained importance from the point in human evolution where the morphology of our eyes became more prominent. Humans' white sclera surrounding the iris, and the fine muscles around their eyes facilitate non-verbal communication via eye signals.