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In this timely and comprehensive text, Cesare Cornoldi and Tomaso Vecchi describe their recently developed experimental approach to the investigation of visuo-spatial cognition, based upon the analysis of individual differences. A review of the most influential theoretical advances in the study of visuo-spatial cognition is presented, including both critical analysis and comparisons between the distinct approaches. In addition, the authors describe recent research into memory for spatial configurations, mental manipulation and the active integration of visuo-spatial information. This includes studies on the effects of congenital blindness on mental imagery abilities, developmental and age-related modifications, gender effects, and the role of genetic syndromes in determining visuo-spatial abilities. The authors draw together these distinct areas of research and integrate the findings within an innovative framework of working memory. This text will be a valuable resource for advanced undergraduate and postgraduate students of psychology, as well as researchers in the fields of cognitive psychology, neuropsychology and neuroscience. Introduction. The Study of Individual Differences in Visuo-spatial Abilities. Models and Components of Visuo-spatial Representation and Working Memory. Gender Differences in Visuo-spatial Abilities. Individual Differences in Children's Visuo-spatial Working Memory. Visuo-spatial Working Memory in Ageing. Imagery, Blindness and Visuo-spatial Working Memory. Visuo-spatial Abilities in Genetic Syndromes. A Continuity Approach to Visuo-spatial Working Memory. References. Cornoldi and Vecchi tackle this topic in a coherent and systematic fashion, giving a very convincing demonstration of the scientific value to be gained from an individual differences approach. - Robert H. Logie, University of Aberdeen, UK An excellent appreciation of the many subtle conceptual and practical issues that arise in attempting to investigate the nature and function of mental imagery. The theoretical analysis of visuo-spatial working memory is highly original and constitutes a serious challenge for previous accounts. - John T. Richardson, Open University, UK

Japan is the oldest society in the world. It has the highest proportion of the population aged 65 and over, a demographic indicator that has been used by demographers for more than a century. One of the main objectives of this study is to apply a new indicator—the cognition-adjusted dependency ratio (CADR)—to remeasure the level of population aging from an innovative point of view. To compute this new index, we apply the mean age-group-specific immediate recall scores for Japan and four other Asian countries, and we compare the results with those derived from the United States and various developed nations in Europe. Our analysis shows that Japan’s pattern and level of age-related decline in cognitive functioning are highly comparable to those of many other developed nations, particularly in Continental Europe. Among the other Asian countries, Malaysia shows a pattern of change similar to countries in Southern Europe, although Malaysia has slightly lower scores than Southern Europe in all age groups. More importantly, these comparative results based on CADR are astonishingly different from the corresponding results obtained from conventional old-age dependency ratios. The Japanese case is the most salient example.

Background We evaluated the predictive performance of 18F‐flortaucipir (FTP) tau imaging within the NIA‐AA multilevel tau staging framework with respect to tau accumulation and cognitive decline in non‐demented individuals. We also tested the relationships of cognitive measures with baseline tau and tau accumulation. Methods FTP scans from 213 non‐demented participants were processed and sampled in Statistical Parametric Mapping software (SPM), version 8, using CenTauR masks. Tau accumulation and cognitive decline associations were assessed longitudinally, with respect to two timepoints, their baseline and most recent evaluations, via survival analysis. Individuals were categorized into 4 groups reflecting the NIA‐AA imaging stages: Initial, with only b‐amyloid (Ab) pathology was present in PET; Early, with Ab pathology and tau pathology in the mesial temporal region; Intermediate, with moderate tau pathology in the meta temporal region; and Advanced, with high levels of tau in the meta temporal region. A “None” group reflecting no pathology was included as a control. Linear regressions were used to compare the longitudinal effects of either baseline tau (SUVR) or tau accumulation (SUVR/year) on cognitive decline. Results While the two sets of thresholds yielded slightly different trajectories, both showed that when applying multiple levels of tau positivity, increasing stages of tau predicted both earlier tau accumulation and earlier cognitive decline. Linear regressions revealed that change in global measures of cognition (MMSE, CDR‐SB) were significantly associated with baseline tau, while decline in Delayed Recall (DR) was significantly associated with both baseline tau and tau accumulation, where tau accumulation had a greater influence in the model, and Immediate Recall (LM) decline was significantly only associated with tau accumulation. Conclusions Implementing the multiple tau stages from the new NIA‐AA biological staging framework clearly predicts distinct patterns of tau accumulation and cognitive decline. While baseline tau is predictive of global cognitive decline, tau accumulation is a better predictor of memory decline. Future work is needed to determine how the thresholds utilized here compare to visual reads and to determine the suitability of these thresholds in differentiating trajectories of individuals with cognitive impairment.

Background With the growth of the elderly population and the increasing incidence of diseases related to cognitive decline, there is a growing demand for effective cognitive screening methods. This study explores the application of a memory and learning test integrated with electroencephalographic (EEG) monitoring in healthy elderly individuals. The research aimed to investigate the correlation between cognitive performance and EEG changes during the test, providing a more comprehensive neurophysiological view of cognitive functions. Method The study was carried out using the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT), designed to assess episodic declarative memory through auditory verbal learning. EEG was used to measure brain wave activity during the test, with Delta, Theta, Alpha, Beta and Gamma waves being recorded for later analysis. The experimental phase involved 18 healthy elderly participants. Result Analysis of the EEG data revealed significant correlations between brainwave activity and cognitive performance. Specifically, higher levels of alpha activity were negatively correlated with immediate recall (rho = ‐0.529, p =  0.024) and delayed recall (rho = ‐0.593, p =  0.009), while higher levels of gamma activity were positively correlated with better performance in immediate recall (rho = 0.572, p =  0.013) and delayed recall (rho = 0.476, p =  0.046). Beta wave activity was negatively correlated with learning across trials during testing (rho = ‐0.536, p =  0.022). Conclusion Cognitive testing combined with EEG monitoring shows promising potential for assessing cognitive function in the elderly. EEG integration allows deeper insights into the neurophysiological processes underlying cognitive performance. However, more studies are needed to validate its clinical applicability.

Many studies suggest that information about past experience, or episodic memory, is divided into discrete units called “events.” Yet we can often remember experiences that span multiple events. Events that occur in close succession might simply be linked because of their proximity to one another, but we can also build links between events that occur farther apart in time. Intuitively, some kind of organizing principle should enable temporally distant events to become bridged in memory. We tested the hypothesis that episodic memory exhibits a narrative-level organization, enabling temporally distant events to be better remembered if they form a coherent narrative. Furthermore, we tested whether post-encoding memory consolidation is necessary to integrate temporally distant events. In three experiments, participants learned and subsequently recalled events from fictional stories, in which pairs of temporally distant events involving side characters (“sideplots”) either formed one coherent narrative or two unrelated narratives. Across participants, we varied whether recall was assessed immediately after learning, or after a delay: 24 hours, 12 hours between morning and evening (“wake”), or 12 hours between evening and morning (“sleep”). Participants recalled more information about coherent than unrelated narrative events, in most delay conditions, including immediate recall and wake conditions, suggesting that post-encoding consolidation was not necessary to integrate temporally distant events into a larger narrative. Furthermore, post hoc modeling across experiments suggested that narrative coherence facilitated recall over and above any effects of sentence-level semantic similarity. This reliable memory benefit for coherent narrative events supports theoretical accounts which propose that narratives provide a high-level architecture for episodic memory.

ABSTRACTBackgroundLoneliness is a significant concern among the elderly, particularly in societies with rapid growth in aging populations. Loneliness may influence cognitive function, but the exact nature of the association between loneliness and cognitive function is poorly understood. The purpose of this systematic review was to synthesize current findings on the association between loneliness and cognitive function in older adults. MethodA comprehensive, electronic review of the literature was performed. Criteria for inclusion were original quantitative or qualitative research, report written in English, human participants with a mean age ≥ 60 years, and published from January 2000 through July 2013. The total number of studies included in this systematic review was ten. ResultsMain findings from the ten studies largely indicate that loneliness is significantly and negatively correlated with cognitive function, specifically in domains of global cognitive function or general cognitive ability, intelligence quotient (IQ), processing speed, immediate recall, and delayed recall. However, some initial correlations were not significant after controlling for a wide range of demographic and psychosocial risk factors thought to influence loneliness. ConclusionsGreater loneliness is associated with lower cognitive function. Although preliminary evidence is promising, additional studies are necessary to determine the causality and biological mechanisms underlying the relationship between loneliness and cognitive function. Findings should be verified in culturally diverse populations in different ages and settings using biobehavioral approaches.

Background The East Boston memory test (EBMT) is a short story recall test that compares favorably to longer story recall tests like the logical memory test. However, little is known as to how well EBMT predicts postmortem Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology, and whether item‐based serial position analysis is applicable to it for this purpose. Methods Data from 1699 individuals participating in three different Rush University study cohorts were examined (age = 79.7, SD = 7.1). The majority of the sample was comprised of women (69%). All participants completed the test in English and were free of dementia at baseline. Analyses were carried out with Bayesian and Frequentist statistics. Regression analyses were applied to predict overall postmortem AD pathology longitudinally from baseline. Predictors were immediate EBMT recall, delayed EBMT recall, and serial position metrics, i.e., the order in which story items were learned. Control variables were age at baseline, gender, years of education, time between baseline and death, and APOE e4 status. Results Inspection of q‐q plots suggested the data were suitable for linear regressions. Results from the Bayesian analyses showed that the best fitting model included two predictors: immediate recall (BFinclusion = 4069) and delayed primacy recall (BFinclusion = 9), i.e., remembering the beginning of the story after a delay. The two predictors did not meaningfully interact. Frequentist tests confirmed that including either immediate recall (AIC = 2884; Figure 1) or delayed primacy (AIC = 2896; Figure 2) in the models improved fit over control variables (AIC = 2915). Further tests indicated that immediate and delayed primacy recalls predicted postmortem neuritic plaques and neurofibrillary tangles burdens, but not diffuse plaques burden. Conclusion In summary, EBMT is suitable to use for early prediction of AD pathology from a cognitively healthy baseline, despite its brevity. Additionally, immediate recall and delayed primacy performance are independent contributors to the prediction of post‐mortem AD‐related neuropathology.

Background The visuospatial function has an excellent relationship with the vestibular system, being a more scientific cognitive ability. However, there are few studies that evaluated visuospatial function before and after vestibular rehabilitation, especially in the Brazilian literature. The purpouse is verify whether elderly people with vestibular dysfunction undergoing vestibular rehabilitation can show improvement in visuospatial function. Method Longitudinal, analytical and quasi‐experimental study (interrupted time series). The sample consisted of 52 elderly people, of both sexes, aged between 60 and 86 years old. Elderly people with vestibular dysfunction confirmed by the Vestibular Evoked Myogenic Potential (VEMP) and Video Head impulse Test (v‐HIT) tests were included. Visuospatial function was assessed before and after eight vestibular rehabilitation (VR) sessions using the Taylor Complex Figure (simplified). The variables were compared before and after vestibular rehabilitation using the Wilcoxon test. However, for intra‐subject analysis before and after intervention, the Reliable Change Index (RCI) was used. A significance level of 5% (p < 0.05) was adopted. Result Participants showed improvement in visuospatial function, especially in immediate recall and delayed recall tasks. Conclusion After vestibular rehabilitation, the elderly showed better performance in visuospatial function.

Background Clinical neuropsychological assessments, particularly narrative recall tests, present significant challenges for real‐time scoring due to the need for rapid interpretation. While post‐hoc scoring from recordings improves accuracy, time constraints in clinical settings often preclude this approach. Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated promise in scoring verbal responses, potentially offering improved reliability and consistency compared to traditional human rating methods. Method 28 participants (14 MCI, 14 age‐matched CN), completed the Craft Story 21 assessment, immediate and delayed. ChatGPT‐4o was provided human‐corrected transcripts along with two sets of questions; a standard scoring criteria which matched that used by human raters, and a novel set of questions, both utilizing few‐shot and chain‐of‐thought prompting strategies. Result LLM scoring demonstrated moderately high correlations with human raters for both immediate (r = 0.654, p < .001) and delayed recall (r = 0.655, p < .001). Interrater reliability was comparable between LLM (ICC2k=0.580, p = .015) and human raters (ICC2k=0.574, p = .008). LLM scoring showed superior discrimination of cognitive status for immediate recall (t(26)=2.64, AUC=0.765, p = .013) compared to human scored responses which did not find any difference (t(26)=1.26, AUC=0.638, p = .218), while discrimination in human‐scored assessments was significantly better for the delayed recall responses (t(26)=2.50, AUC=0.747, p = .019) than LLMs (t(26)=1.57, AUC=0.662, p = .128). A novel set of questions was then developed to separate general from specific answers, with variable weighting per question, which exhibited an ability to improve discrimination in the immediate recall assessment (AUC=0.798, p = 0.010) compared to the standard questions, but not in the delayed component. Conclusion LLMs demonstrate potential as a reliable, cost‐effective alternative to human scoring, offering consistent performance and the ability to retrospectively apply modified scoring criteria for research purposes. However, the presence of hallucinations and score variability between model runs suggests that this technology is at a premature stage for use in clinical settings. Nonetheless, rapid advancements in the field may result this strategy being a viable alternative in the very near future, especially as more advanced reasoning models become more available and consistent.

Background Mobile‐based cognitive assessments offer a promising low‐burden approach to screen for cognitive impairment, but their tolerability and diagnostic accuracy remain underexplored (Vanderlip et al., 2024). This study evaluated the feasibility of using a mobile app to obtain voice‐based neuropsychological testing and detect cognitive impairment through an NLP‐AI analysis of memory performance. Methods 34 participants with MCI or mild dementia (mean age = 66.6 ± 8.0 years, 44% female; CDR £ 1) and 20 cognitively healthy controls (mean age = 68.8 ± 4.9 years, 60% female) completed a brief battery of verbal neuropsychological tests (assessing executive functioning, memory, and language) using the Sonde One mobile app. Responses were captured via at‐home voice recordings. Neuropsychological test scores were summed to generate a composite score for each participant who recorded at least five of seven tasks. Using a large language model‐based algorithm, we measured verbal memory performance by calculating the language informative index (LII; Bayat et al., 2024), which assessed the similarity between the original narrative and immediate and delayed recalls of the story. ROC curve analysis was conducted to assess the accuracy of the composite score and LII in distinguishing patients from controls. Results 27 patients (79%) and 19 controls (95%) successfully completed at least five neuropsychological tasks either independently or with caregiver support. ROC curve analyses demonstrated strong diagnostic accuracy of the neuropsychological composite score in distinguishing patients from controls (AUC = 0.99, 95% CI = 0.96‐1.00). Diagnostic classification accuracy using story recall LII was also strong (Immediate Recall: AUC = 0.96, 95% CI = 0.91‐1.00; Delayed Recall: AUC = 0.93, 95% CI = 0.86‐1.00). Conclusions Our findings indicate that remote, at‐home cognitive assessment via mobile app is a feasible method for detecting MCI and mild dementia. The strong performance of LII‐based memory analysis suggests it may serve as an effective, low‐burden tool for streamlining cognitive assessments in both remote and clinical settings. Additional analyses are underway to determine whether LII can be used to discriminate among dementia syndromes and severity levels.