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Infrastructure investment has become a recent policy priority across cities and regions. The present research analyses specific institutional mechanisms that promote cities' investment in infrastructure systems. It explores how city governments adapt their infrastructure investment to state and local contexts. Using data at the municipal level, we examine trends in city-governmental investment toward road infrastructure across 2002, 2007, 2012 and 2017. Specifically, we present detailed data on impact fee authority for cities. The baseline finding is that local investment in road infrastructure varies widely in urban regions. Additional findings are that impact fee authority and fiscal transfers are statistically associated with cities' investment in road infrastructure systems. Further, we present a series of alternative tests to explore the potential sensitivity of results. The study connects literature on intergovernmental mechanisms that support local government investments in urban infrastructure systems.

\"The vast majority of funding for public transportation comes from local and national governments. With all levels of governments currently, and for the foreseeable future, under significant fiscal stress, any new transit funding mechanism is to be welcomed. Value capture (VC) is one such mechanism, which involves the identification and capture of a public infrastructure-led increase in property value\"--Provided by publisher.

Parkland dedication and park impact fees are governmental exactions that are imposed as a condition for permitting development. They are manifestations of the Benefit Principle of government. This recognizes that if taxes are not to be raised and quality of life is not to be reduced, then those who benefit from services should be required to pay for them. In many communities, the political mantra is dominated by fiscal conservatism. Operationally, this generally means elected officials will not support increases in taxation. Hence, exactions designed to ensure growth pays for itself are consistent with this prevailing political mantra. Despite this \"goodness of fit,\" they remain underutilized. The paper examines the reasons for this and suggests strategies for surmounting these challenges. The evolution of parkland dedication and park impact fees is described, and their complementarity is explained. Often, they are mistakenly regarded as operational synonyms, but different operational implications spring from their different geneses and these are highlighted. Reluctance to utilize the full potential of exactions stems primarily from the beguiling myth that population growth in a community expands the tax base which keeps taxes low. This myth frequently stems from the \"urban growth machine,\" which has a strong self-interest in perpetuating it and the loudest megaphones through which to disseminate this message. Evidence that exposes this shibboleth is presented. Rationales for imposing maximum exactions are presented. In sum, those of us who are elected officials can address problems of growth in three ways: Raising taxes on existing residents, allowing the level of service to decline by doing nothing, or using parkland dedications and park impact fees to make new residents pay for the new parks demand they have created. An analysis is offered as to who ultimately pays for parkland dedications and park impact fees. There are three sets of stakeholders: New homeowners, developers, and landowners. The popular belief that the fees are passed forward to new homeowners is challenged. It is pointed out that the most likely scenarios are that (i) the costs are passed back to landowners, since developers will respond to higher dedications or fees by paying less for the land; or (ii) the costs of building a dwelling are mitigated by reducing its size and/or the quality of its fittings, finishing or landscaping. The concluding section examines why they are underused and suggests a viable strategy for surmounting opposition is to point out the opportunity cost to a community's taxpayers of not implementing maximum dedications and/or impact fees. Keywords Parkland dedication, park impact fees, underutilized

Time and costs are often the most critical constraints in implementing a development impact fee (DIF) for local infrastructure installation planning in South Korea. For this reason, drafting quality plan alternatives and calculating precise DIFs for improvement remain challenging. This study proposes an application of a procedural modeling method using CityEngine as an alternative to traditional methods, which rely on AutoCAD. A virtual low-density suburban development project in Jeju, South Korea was used to compare the workability of the two methods. The findings suggest that procedural modeling outperforms the other approach by significantly reducing the number of steps and commands required in the planning process. This paper also argues that procedural modeling provides real-time 2- and 3-dimensional modeling and design evaluation and allows for a more efficient assessment of plan quality and calculation of DIF. We also argue for the need to diffuse procedural modeling to better support local planning practices.

To pay for environmental and public infrastructure costs associated with shale gas wells, Pennsylvania introduced a per-well impact fee despite concerns that it would discourage industry investment. Using a quasi-experimental design and data that nearly cover the universe of leases and wells in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia, we find that leasing by energy firms declined dramatically after the fee's enactment, but little to no declines in well permitting or drilling occurred in the most geologically similar subsample. We estimate that at least 60% of the decline in leasing reflects a liquidity crunch linked to retroactive application of the fee in a time of low natural gas prices. We also observe limited pass-through of the fee to resource owners. Firms could not change the terms of leases signed before the fee, and only half of the fee was passed through in new leases, primarily through a lower royalty rate.

Open source software (OSS) communities are dependent on the code contributions of developers who, in many cases, never meet face-to-face and collaborate primarily through technology-enabled means. With their fluid membership, such communities often rely on engaging the commitment of developers to their cause. Given the changing nature of OSS communities, developers face barriers in appreciating appropriate ways of contributing to the collaborative effort. Such uncertainty about how to contribute results in OSS communities losing developers as they devote their attention to other, more welcoming, communities. In this research, we draw upon uncertainty reduction theory to argue that developers have two alternative avenues at their disposal to gain certainty about how to contribute: passive and interactive. Leveraging the person–environment fit perspective, we argue that congruence and incongruence in the OSS values of a developer and an OSS community serve as an avenue for passive approaches to gaining certainty, to the degree that appropriate ways of contributing are encoded in these values. Further, leveraging social network theory, we argue that centrality within a community’s communication network constitutes an avenue for interactive approaches for gaining certainty about how to contribute. Using polynomial regression analysis, we analyze survey and archival data from 410 developers in an OSS community. Results suggest that developer centrality moderates the impact of congruence and incongruence in OSS values on commitment. Moreover, commitment fully mediates the impact of OSS value congruence and incongruence on developer contribution activity. We discuss the implications of our findings for research and practice.

Using unique data from 12 lenders, we examine how equity lending fees respond to demand shocks. We find that, when demand is moderate, fees are largely insensitive to demand shocks. However, at high demand levels, further increases in demand lead to significantly higher fees and the extent to which demand shocks impact fees is also related to search frictions in the loan market. Moreover, consistent with search models, we find significant dispersion in loan fees, with this dispersion increasing in loan scarcity and search frictions. Our findings imply that search frictions significantly impact short selling costs.

Although development impact fees have been used by local governments for decades, it is still not well understood how this tool serves its fundamental policy goal of growth management. Previous studies have shown that impact fees can serve as either a vehicle or restraint for land development. By using panel data from Florida counties in the U.S., this study shows that the use of impact fees precipitates local development by increasing the value of developable parcels. Impact fees allow developers to pursue more development activities as they bear the imposed fees.

BackgroundThe British Athletics Muscle Injury Classification describes acute muscle injuries and their anatomical site within muscle based on MRI parameters of injury extent. It grades injuries from 0 to 4 and classifies location based on a myofascial (a), musculotendinous (b) or intratendinous (c) description. This is a retrospective cohort study that assessed time to return to full training (TRFT) and injury recurrence in the different British Athletics classifications for hamstring injuries sustained by elite track and field (T&F) athletes over a 4-year period.MethodsThe electronic medical records (EMRs) of 230 elite British T&F athletes were reviewed. Athletes who sustained an acute hamstring injury, with MRI investigation within 7 days of injury, were included. MRI were graded by two musculoskeletal radiologists using the British Athletics Muscle Injury Classification. The EMRs were reviewed by 2 sports physicians, blinded to the new classification; TRFT and injury recurrence were recorded.ResultsThere were 65 hamstring injuries in 44 athletes (24±4.4 years; 28 male, 16 female). TRFT differed among grades (p<0.001). Grade 3 injuries and ‘c’ injuries took significantly longer and grade 0 injuries took less TRFT. There were 12 re-injuries; the injury recurrence rate was significantly higher in intratendinous (c) injuries (p<0.001). There was no difference in re-injury rate between number grades 1–3, hamstring muscle affected, location (proximal vs central vs distal), age or sex.ConclusionsThis study describes the clinical application of the British Athletics Muscle Injury Classification. Different categories of hamstring injuries had different TRFT and recurrence rate. Hamstring injuries that extend into the tendon (‘c’) are more prone to re-injury and delay TRFT.