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This article overviews current research on second language vocabulary learning. It concludes that a large vocabulary is necessary to function in English: 8000—9000 word families for reading, and perhaps as many as 5000—7000 families for oral discourse. In addition, a number of word knowledge aspects need to be learned about each lexical item. Taken together, this amounts to a substantial lexical learning challenge, one which many/most learners fail to meet. To facilitate adequate vocabulary learning, four vocabulary learning partners (students, teachers, materials writers, and researchers) need to contribute to the learning process. Vocabulary learning programs need to include both an explicit, intentional learning component and a component based around maximizing exposure and incidental learning. The four learning strands (meaning-focused input, meaning-focused output, language-focused learning, and fluency development) suggested by Nation (2001) provide a structure by which to integrate intentional and incidental vocabulary learning. The overriding principle for maximizing vocabulary learning is to increase the amount of engagement learners have with lexical items. All four learning partners need to acknowledge the incremental nature of vocabulary learning, and to develop learning programs which are principled, long-term, and which recognize the richness and scope of the lexical knowledge that needs to be mastered.

This study responds to the call for more ecologically valid psycholinguistic research (Spivey & Cardon, 2015) by examining how readers incidentally acquire multifaceted vocabulary knowledge while reading a long, authentic text. Using eye tracking, we explore how the processing of unfamiliar words changes with repeated exposure and how the repeated exposure and processing affect word learning. In two sessions, native and non-native English speakers read five chapters of an authentic English novel containing Dari words. After reading, participants received a comprehension test and three surprise vocabulary tests. Growth curve modeling revealed a non-linear decrease in reading times that followed an S shaped curve. Number of exposures was the strongest predictor of vocabulary learning (form and meaning), while total reading time independently contributed to the learning of word meaning. Thus, both quantity and quality of lexical processing aid incremental vocabulary development and may reveal themselves differently in readers’ eye movement records.

This study investigated incidental learning of single‐word items and collocations through listening to teacher talk. Although there are several studies that have investigated incidental vocabulary learning through listening, no intervention studies have explicitly investigated the extent to which listening to teachers in a classroom context might contribute to vocabulary learning. The present study fills this gap. Additionally, the study explored the relationship between vocabulary learning gains and two factors: frequency of occurrence and first language (L1) translation. A meaning‐recall test and a multiple‐choice test were used to evaluate learning gains. The results indicated that (a) listening to teacher talk has potential to contribute to vocabulary learning of both single‐word items and collocations, (b) using L1 translation to explain target word meanings contributed to larger gains on the immediate posttest, (c) frequency of occurrence was not a significant predictor of incidental vocabulary learning.

This study investigated the effects of semantic transparency of Chinese disyllabic compound words on Chinese as a second language (CSL) learners’ incidental learning of word meanings in sentence-level reading and passage-level reading. The accuracy of the learners’ lexical inferencing was compared among various types of words (transparent, semi-transparent, and opaque words), different context lengths (sentence and passage contexts), and learners with different L1 backgrounds (with and without a Chinese character background in their L1s). In the study, ninety CSL adult learners were asked to infer the meanings of target words in the sentence context and the passage context. The results indicated that the effects of semantic transparency and context length on inferencing accuracy were significant, while the effect of L1 background was not. It was also found that there were significant interactions between transparency and context length as well as between transparency and L1 background.

Recent studies have revealed that presenting novel words across various contexts (i.e., contextual diversity) helps to consolidate the meaning of these words both in adults and children. This effect has been typically explained in terms of semantic distinctiveness (e.g., Semantic Distinctiveness Model, Jones et al., Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology , 66 (2), 115, 2012). However, the relative influence of other, non-semantic, elements of the context is still unclear. In this study, we examined whether incidental learning of new words in children was facilitated when the words were uttered by several individuals rather than when they were uttered by the same individual. In the learning phase, the to-be-learned words were presented through audible fables recorded either by the same voice (low diversity) or by different voices (high diversity). Subsequently, word learning was assessed through two orthographic and semantic integration tasks. Results showed that words uttered by different voices were learned better than those uttered by the same voice. Thus, the benefits of contextual diversity in word learning extend beyond semantic differences among contexts; they also benefit from perceptual differences among contexts.

The environment provides multiple regularities that might be useful in guiding behavior if one was able to learn their structure. Understanding statistical learning across simultaneous regularities is important, but poorly understood. We investigate learning across two domains: visuomotor sequence learning through the serial reaction time (SRT) task, and incidental auditory category learning via the systematic multimodal association reaction time (SMART) task. Several commonalities raise the possibility that these two learning phenomena may draw on common cognitive resources and neural networks. In each, participants are uninformed of the regularities that they come to use to guide actions, the outcomes of which may provide a form of internal feedback . We used dual-task conditions to compare learning of the regularities in isolation versus when they are simultaneously available to support behavior on a seemingly orthogonal visuomotor task. Learning occurred across the simultaneous regularities, without attenuation even when the informational value of a regularity was reduced by the presence of the additional, convergent regularity. Thus, the simultaneous regularities do not compete for associative strength, as in overshadowing effects. Moreover, the visuomotor sequence learning and incidental auditory category learning do not appear to compete for common cognitive resources; learning across the simultaneous regularities was comparable to learning each regularity in isolation.

This study investigates the effects of multimedia glosses on text recall and incidental vocabulary learning in a mobile-assisted L2 listening task. A total of 88 participants with a low level of proficiency in English were randomly assigned to one of four conditions that involved single channel (textual-only, pictorial-only) and dual-channel (textual-plus-pictorial) glosses as well as a control condition where no glosses were provided. The participants listened to a story through their mobile phones and were engaged in an immediate free recall task and unannounced vocabulary tests after listening. The findings indicated that access to glosses facilitated recognition and production of vocabulary with the type of gloss having no effect. On the other hand, glosses had no effect on text recall.

Within instructed second language research, there is growing interest in research focusing on primary school vocabulary learning. Research has emphasized classroom-based learning of vocabulary knowledge, with growing focus on the potential for using captioned videos and increased word encounters. The present study investigated the effects of various captioning conditions (i.e. full captioning, keyword captioning, and no captions), the number of word encounters (one and three), and the combinations of these two variables on incidental learning of new words while viewing a video. Six possible conditions were explored. A total of 257 primary school students learning English as a second language (ESL) were divided into six groups and randomly assigned to a condition in which 15 target lexical items were included. A post-test, measuring the recognition of word form/meaning and recall of word meaning, was administered immediately after participants viewed the video. The post-test was not disclosed to the learners in advance. The group viewing the full captioning video scored significantly higher than the keyword captioning group and the no-captioning group. Repeated encounters with the targeted lexical items led to more successful learning. The combination of full captioning and three encounters was most effective for incidental learning of lexical items. This quasi-experimental study contributes to the literature by providing evidence which suggests that captioned videos coordinate two domains (i.e. auditory and visual components) and help ESL learners to obtain greater depth of word form processing, identify meaning by unpacking language chunks, and reinforce the form-meaning link.

Exposure to collocations in real-life film dialogues could enhance language acquisition and engagement among learners of English as a foreign language (EFL). This study investigates the effectiveness of captioned film clips in Saudi female EFL students’ incidental learning of three categories of lexical collocations. It also examines cognitive and metacognitive strategy use by successful learners of lexical collocations. Furthermore, it explores students’ perceptions of using films as a learning tool for English vocabulary. The sample comprised 88 Saudi female EFL university students. The participants were divided into a control group (n = 43) and an experimental group (n = 45). A mixed-methods approach was employed. Quantitative data was collected through a pretest and posttest on three categories of lexical collocations and a questionnaire about cognitive and metacognitive learning strategy use. The qualitative data was collected from semi-structured interviews with five participants. The results showed that the intervention significantly improved the students’ incidental learning of lexical collocations. Moreover, it revealed that successful learners of lexical collocations employed various cognitive and metacognitive strategies, with a notable emphasis on metacognitive strategies. Additionally, qualitative analysis revealed that students perceived films as practical tools for improving vocabulary, as they provide authentic language exposure and motivation for learning. The study suggests incorporating captioned film clips into EFL collocation instruction to enhance EFL learners’ collocational competence. Furthermore, it highlights the significance of strategic awareness in achieving collocation mastery and raising EFL students’ understanding of effective learning strategies to improve collocation learning outcomes, particularly for less successful learners.

This longitudinal mixed-method study investigated effects of the reading-while-listening mode on the incidental learning of two dimensions of vocabulary knowledge, namely receptive knowledge and productive knowledge, in a Chinese EFL classroom context. Additionally, EFL learners’ attitudes toward the reading-while-listening mode of incidental vocabulary learning were examined. Seventy-eight Chinese EFL students with typical vocabulary sizes around 2,000 from two intact classes at a senior high school participated in the study and assigned as the experimental and the control groups. Over a 10-week intervention, the experimental group engaged in incidental vocabulary learning through reading while listening, whereas the control group retained a traditional reading-only mode. The results from three vocabulary tests showed that the reading-while-listening mode was more effective for incidental vocabulary learning and retention than the traditional reading-only mode on the dimensions of sound recognition, meaning recognition, and meaning recall but not on the dimension of form recall. Questionnaire and interview data unveiled that Chinese EFL learners have positive attitudes toward reading while listening as a means of incidentally learning vocabulary. Through reading while listening, they developed learning interest, increased classroom engagement, improved learning efficiency, and built confidence in English learning. The study contributes empirical evidence supporting multimodal language learning approaches, offering practical recommendations for EFL instructional design and vocabulary learning strategies. Plain language summary The effect of reading-while-listening mode on incidental vocabulary learning in an EFL classroom context This study looked at how learning vocabulary by reading and listening at the same time works for Chinese students learning English as a foreign language (EFL). Two groups of students were prepared: one group learned vocabulary by reading and listening, and the other group learned by just reading. The study found that the reading-while-listening method helped students better remember the sounds and meanings of new words, but not so much the spelling. The students also liked this method because it made them more interested in learning, more engaged in class, more efficient in learning, and more confident in their English skills.