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People tend to be more prosocial after synchronizing behaviors with others, yet the underlying neural mechanisms are rarely known. In this study, participant dyads performed either a coordination task or an independence task, with their brain activations recorded via the functional near-infrared spectroscopy hyperscanning technique. Participant dyads in the coordination group showed higher synchronized behaviors and greater subsequent inclination to help each other than those in the independence group, indicating the prosocial effect of interpersonal synchrony. Importantly, the coordination group demonstrated the significant task-related brain coherence, namely the interbrain synchronization, at the left middle frontal area. The detected interbrain synchronization was sensitive to shared intentionality between participants and was correlated with the mutual prosocial inclination. Further, the task-related brain coherence played a mediation role in the prosocial effect of interpersonal synchrony. This study reveals the relevance of brain-to-brain synchronization among individuals with subsequent mutual prosocial inclination and suggests the neural mechanism associating with shared cognition for the facilitation of interpersonal synchrony on prosociality.

•We created a novel experimental paradigm combining multibrain noninvasive stimulation with fNIRS hyperscanning to study human coordination.•The neural modulation induced by multibrain noninvasive stimulation enhanced coordination behavior, providing direct evidence of a causal link between neural activity and coordination behavior.•Improved interbrain synchronization of task states and enhanced neural efficiency in cortical areas related to the mirror neuron system had a positive impact on coordination performance.•The behavioral benefits of interbrain synchronization were long lasting.•Applications of these two interventions (hyper-tACS/hyper-tDCS) for enhancement of coordination should be guided by their temporal sensitivity. Coordination is crucial for individuals to achieve common goals; however, the causal relationship between coordination behavior and neural activity has not yet been explored. Interbrain synchronization (IBS) and neural efficiency in cortical areas associated with the mirror neuron system (MNS) are considered two potential brain mechanisms. In the present study, we attempted to clarify how the two mechanisms facilitate coordination using hypertranscranial electrical stimulation (hyper-tES). A total of 124 healthy young adults were randomly divided into three groups (the hyper-tACS, hyper-tDCS and sham groups) and underwent modulation of the right inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) during functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Increased IBS of the PFC or neural efficiency of the right IFG (related to the MNS) was accompanied by greater coordination behavior; IBS had longer-lasting effects on behavior. Our findings highlight the importance of IBS and neural efficiency of the frontal cortex for coordination and suggest potential interventions to improve coordination in different temporal windows. [Display omitted]

•There are distinct neural mechanisms underlying imitation learning and co-presence learning.•Imitation learning and co-presence learning influenced word formation learning.•The left middle frontal gyrus is an important neural basis for co-presence learning.•The neural activity flowing in a unidirectional manner from the imitator to the demonstrator in imitation learning. Imitation learning and co-presence learning are common forms of social learning. However, the effects of these two types of learning on acquiring word formation rules have gone relatively underexplored, particularly in the context of adult social learning. The current study uses functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) hyperscanning techniques to record the cognitive neural mechanisms of acquiring word formation rules during imitation learning and co-presence learning among dyads of 120 healthy adults. The experiment was a 2 (word learning type: within-subjects, easy word formation rules vs. difficult word formation rules) × 2 (social learning type: between-subjects, imitation learning vs. co-presence learning) mixed design. We used FDR correction to control for false positive rates. Co-presence learning enhanced interbrain synchronization and representation similarity among co-learners in the left middle frontal gyrus. In contrast, imitation learning increased interbrain synchronization in the right superior frontal gyrus, with Granger causality analysis indicating a unidirectional flow of neural activity from the imitator to the demonstrator. These findings suggest that there are distinct neural mechanisms underlying imitation learning and co-presence learning.

This study investigates whether and how parent’s cooperation affects child’s cooperation, and whether that differs between children with/without autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The experiment involved a cooperative key-pressing task completed first by parent–parent dyads and then by parent–child dyads, meanwhile brain activity in the right frontal–parietal cortex of dyad partners was measured synchronously. The results showed the following: ASD children exhibited performance comparable to those of their peers, as was the level of brain synchronization with their parents, which was mainly due to parents with ASD children tending to adjust their own response patterns to match those of their children. These findings suggest that parents can somewhat actively mitigate the lower interpersonal synchronization ability of ASD children, in behavioral or/and neural level.

Importantly, IBS was not present during the parallel playing condition. [...]while both interactive conditions in the study led to IBS in the middle frontal gyrus (MFG) and superior frontal gyrus (SFG), an additional IBS appeared between the dorsomedial PFCs only in the cooperative condition. [...]we suggest that in order to investigate the causality question of whether IBS is a mechanism or an epiphenomenon of social interactions, we must do so in the context of social interactions. [...]if IBS is indeed the mechanism by which we can induce greater levels of shared intentionality and prosociality, naturalistic IBS training sessions can also be implemented as a treatment method for different disorders associated with social deficits, such as autism.

Significance Though the statistical properties of musical compositions have been widely studied, little is known about the statistical nature of musical interaction—a foundation of musical communication. The goal of this study was to uncover the general statistical properties underlying musical interaction by observing two individuals synchronizing rhythms. We found that the interbeat intervals between individuals exhibit scale-free cross-correlations, i.e., the next beat played by an individual is dependent on the entire history (up to several minutes) of their partner’s interbeat intervals. To explain this surprising observation, we introduce a general stochastic model that can also be used to study synchronization phenomena in econophysics and physiology. The scaling laws found in musical interaction are directly applicable to audio production.

Background Acute stress has complex effects on executive function and social behavior; however, the direction of these effects is inconsistent across studies, and the underlying neural mechanisms remain poorly understood. This study investigated the behavioral and neural effects of acute stress on executive function and dyadic cooperation and their relationships. Methods Eighty‐six healthy male undergraduates (18–25 years) were randomly assigned to stress (n = 44; Trier Social Stress Test for Groups [TSST‐G]) or control groups (n = 42; placebo TSST‐G). The participants completed executive function tasks (3‐back, Go/Nogo, Stroop, and task‐switching) and cooperative button‐pressing tasks pre‐ and postintervention, with a counterbalanced order. Functional near‐infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) was performed simultaneously. Results Stress impaired the practice‐induced improvement in 3‐back accuracy observed in the control group, although it did not significantly affect other performance metrics. During the 3‐back, Stroop, task‐switching, and cooperative tasks, increased and decreased prefrontal cortex (PFC) activation from baseline to postintervention were observed in the stress and control groups, respectively. Furthermore, greater bilateral dorsolateral PFC (DLPFC) interbrain synchronization (IBS) changes during the cooperative task were observed in the stress group. Cognitive flexibility and cooperation were positively linked both behaviorally and neurally. Conclusions TSST‐G‐induced stress disrupted the learning‐related enhancement of working memory; however, response inhibition, interference control, cognitive flexibility, and cooperative performance were preserved. The concurrent observation of trends toward increased neural activation and IBS under stress is compatible with, but does not prove, potential compensatory mechanisms. The identified neural and behavioral correlations point to a potential connection between executive and social processes under stress. We tentatively frame these exploratory observations within the “Executive–Social Function Coupling Hypothesis” as a heuristic model for future research. The implications of these preliminary findings are discussed. Trends in increased PFC activation and increased IBS may be indicative of compensatory neural mechanisms preserving performance under stress. Cognitive flexibility correlated with cooperative outcomes, tentatively supporting a neurobehavioral executive‐social link during acute stress inviting more research.

•Compared with the explanation or control groups, learners who underwent scaffolding instruction demonstrated superior creative performance in both acquisition and transfer .•We observed remarkable interbrain neural synchronization between instructors and learners in the left superior frontal cortex within the scaffolding group compared with the explanation or control groups.•The neural synchronization positively predicted enhancement in creativity performance, indicating that interbrain neural synchronization is the underlying mechanism in the creativity-fostering process. Creativity is an indispensable competency in today's innovation-driven society. Yet, the influences of instructional strategy, a key determinant of educational outcomes, on the creativity-fostering process remains an unresolved mystery. We proposed that instructional strategy affects creativity cultivation and further investigated the intricate neural mechanisms underlying this relationship. In a naturalistic laboratory setting, 66 instructor-learner dyads were randomized into three groups (scaffolding, explanation, and control), with divergent thinking instructions separately. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) hyperscanning simultaneously collected brain signals in the prefrontal cortex and temporal-parietal junction regions. Results indicated that learners instructed with a scaffolding strategy demonstrated superior creative performance both in acquisition (direct learning) and transfer (use in a novel context) of creativity skills, compared to pretest levels. In contrast, the control and explanation groups did not exhibit such effects. Notably, we also observed remarkable interbrain neural synchronization (INS) between instructors and learners in the left superior frontal cortex in the scaffolding group, but not in the explanation or control groups. Furthermore, INS positively predicted enhancements in creativity performance (acquisition and transfer), indicating that it is a crucial neural mechanism in the creativity-fostering process. These findings reveal that scaffolding facilitates the acquisition and transfer of creativity and deepen our understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying the process of creativity-fostering. The current study provides valuable insights for implementing teaching strategies to fostering creativity.

A fundamental characteristic of the human brain that supports behavior is its capacity to create connections between brain regions. A promising approach holds that during social behavior, brain regions not only create connections with other brain regions within a brain, but also coordinate their activity with other brain regions of an interaction partner. Here we ask whether between‐brain and within‐brain coupling contribute differentially to movement synchronization. We focused on coupling between the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), a brain region associated with the observation‐execution system, and the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC), a region associated with error‐monitoring and prediction. Participants, randomly divided into dyads, were simultaneously scanned with functional near infra‐red spectroscopy (fNIRS) while performing an open‐ended 3D hand movement task consisting of three conditions: back‐to‐back movement, free movement, or intentional synchronization. Results show that behavioral synchrony was higher in the intentional synchrony compared with the back‐to‐back and free movement conditions. Between‐brain coupling in the IFG and dmPFC was evident in the free movement and intentional synchrony conditions but not in the back‐to‐back condition. Importantly, between‐brain coupling was found to positively predict intentional synchrony, while within‐brain coupling was found to predict synchronization during free movement. These results indicate that during intentional synchronization, brain organization changes such that between‐brain networks, but not within‐brain connections, contribute to successful communication, pointing to shift from a within‐brain feedback loop to a two‐brains feedback loop. To explore whether inter‐brain and intra‐brain coupling contribute differentially to movement synchronization, we examined coupling between the inferior frontal gyrus and the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex within and between brains, while participants were performing an open‐ended 3D hand movement task. Inter‐brain coupling in the IFG and dmPFC was evident in the free movement and intentional synchrony conditions but not in the back‐to‐back condition. Importantly, inter‐brain coupling was found to positively predict intentional synchrony, while intra‐brain coupling was found to predict synchronization during free movement.

To investigate whether directionality in hyperbrain networks reflects different roles during interpersonal action coordination (IAC), we recorded EEG data from pairs of guitarists playing together as musical leaders versus followers. We used an asymmetric index of in-phase synchronization to analyze hyperbrain networks of directed functional connectivity in the alpha and beta frequency ranges for time segments around coordinated play onsets. After exploring the small-world characteristics of the networks at different thresholds, we examined the directed connection strengths within and between brains. As predicted, we found evidence suggesting that the musical roles of leader and follower are associated with different patterns of directed between-brain couplings. The functional significance of these differences for IAC requires further study.