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Theories of innovation emphasize the role of social networks and teams as facilitators of breakthrough discoveries 1 – 4 . Around the world, scientists and inventors are more plentiful and interconnected today than ever before 4 . However, although there are more people making discoveries, and more ideas that can be reconfigured in new ways, research suggests that new ideas are getting harder to find 5 , 6 —contradicting recombinant growth theory 7 , 8 . Here we shed light on this apparent puzzle. Analysing 20 million research articles and 4 million patent applications from across the globe over the past half-century, we begin by documenting the rise of remote collaboration across cities, underlining the growing interconnectedness of scientists and inventors globally. We further show that across all fields, periods and team sizes, researchers in these remote teams are consistently less likely to make breakthrough discoveries relative to their on-site counterparts. Creating a dataset that allows us to explore the division of labour in knowledge production within teams and across space, we find that among distributed team members, collaboration centres on late-stage, technical tasks involving more codified knowledge. Yet they are less likely to join forces in conceptual tasks—such as conceiving new ideas and designing research—when knowledge is tacit 9 . We conclude that despite striking improvements in digital technology in recent years, remote teams are less likely to integrate the knowledge of their members to produce new, disruptive ideas. Analysis of research articles and patent applications shows that members of teams that collaborate remotely are less likely to make breakthrough discoveries than members of on-site teams.

\"Schilling ... invites us into the lives of eight people--Albert Einstein, Benjamin Franklin, Elon Musk, Dean Kamen, Nikola Tesla, Marie Curie, Thomas Edison, and Steve Jobs--to identify the traits and experiences that drove them to make spectacular breakthroughs, over and over again. While all innovators possess incredible intellect, intellect alone, she [says], does not create a breakthrough innovator\"--Dust jacket flap.

A long-running investigation of exceptional children reveals what it takes to produce the scientists who will lead the twenty-first century.

Austrian social scientist Helga Nowotny was president of the European Research Council between 2010 and 2013. Now a professor emerita of ETH Zurich and author of The Cunning of Uncertainty (Polity, 2015), Nowotny discusses the growing pressure to capitalize on academic research, and how countries can get it right in the absence of a universal recipe.

Recently, multifocal transcranial current stimulation (tCS) devices using several relatively small electrodes have been used to achieve more focal stimulation of specific cortical targets. However, it is becoming increasingly recognized that many behavioral manifestations of neurological and psychiatric disease are not solely the result of abnormality in one isolated brain region but represent alterations in brain networks. In this paper we describe a method for optimizing the configuration of multifocal tCS for stimulation of brain networks, represented by spatially extended cortical targets. We show how, based on fMRI, PET, EEG or other data specifying a target map on the cortical surface for excitatory, inhibitory or neutral stimulation and a constraint on the maximal number of electrodes, a solution can be produced with the optimal currents and locations of the electrodes. The method described here relies on a fast calculation of multifocal tCS electric fields (including components normal and tangential to the cortical boundaries) using a five layer finite element model of a realistic head. Based on the hypothesis that the effects of current stimulation are to first order due to the interaction of electric fields with populations of elongated cortical neurons, it is argued that the optimization problem for tCS stimulation can be defined in terms of the component of the electric field normal to the cortical surface. Solutions are found using constrained least squares to optimize current intensities, while electrode number and their locations are selected using a genetic algorithm. For direct current tCS (tDCS) applications, we provide some examples of this technique using an available tCS system providing 8 small Ag/AgCl stimulation electrodes. We demonstrate the approach both for localized and spatially extended targets defined using rs-fcMRI and PET data, with clinical applications in stroke and depression. Finally, we extend these ideas to more general stimulation protocols, such as alternating current tCS (tACS). •We provide a method for optimizing the configuration of multifocal tDCS.•Optimization cortical target maps are based on fMRI, PET or other data.•Algorithm optimizes electrode currents and locations subject to safety constraints.•We highlight clinical applications in stroke and depression.•We discuss the generalization of these methods to tACS.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) is used clinically for the treatment of depression however outcomes vary greatly between patients. We have shown that average clinical efficacy of different left DLPFC TMS sites is related to intrinsic functional connectivity with remote regions including the subgenual cingulate and suggested that functional connectivity with these remote regions might be used to identify optimized left DLPFC targets for TMS. However it remains unclear if and how this connectivity-based targeting approach should be applied at the single-subject level to potentially individualize therapy to specific patients. In this article we show that individual differences in DLPFC connectivity are large, reproducible across sessions, and can be used to generate individualized DLPFC TMS targets that may prove clinically superior to those selected on the basis of group-average connectivity. Factors likely to improve individualized targeting including the use of seed maps and the focality of stimulation are investigated and discussed. The techniques presented here may be applicable to individualized targeting of focal brain stimulation across a range of diseases and stimulation modalities and can be experimentally tested in clinical trials. ► There is significant individual variability in the connectivity of the left DLPFC. ► Individual differences in DLPFC connectivity are reproducible across days. ► Individualized TMS targets appear superior to population-based targets. ► Seed maps improve signal/noise compared to small seed regions. ► Individualized targeting is likely of greater benefit with more focal stimulation.

Background Enhancing the sense of work gain serves as a crucial approach to invigorating S&T innovators. However, there is currently a lack of specialised instruments for measuring S&T innovators' sense of work gain (STISWG), thus limiting the progress of empirical research in this field. Consequently, this study aims to develop and validate the STISWG scale based on the Existence, Relatedness and Growth theory to address this issue. Methods The development and validation of the STISWG scale spanned four stages and cumulatively used valid questionnaire data from 1,597 S&T innovators. The analysis methods encompassed item analysis, exploratory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), reliability analysis, and assessment of the external predictive validity by using the Employee Innovative Behaviour Scale and the Paternalistic Leadership Scale. Results The STISWG scale and three subscales had satisfactory reliability across all stages. EFA indicated that the 11-item STISWG scale comprised three dimensions: existence gain, relatedness gain and growth gain. CFA confirmed that the three-factor structure of the STISWG scale was the most optimal. The results of the predictive validity revealed that all three dimensions of the STISWG were good predictors of innovative behaviour. Three dimensions of paternalistic leadership moderated the above relationships, with authoritarian leadership weakening them and benevolent and moral leadership strengthening them. Conclusions This study provides an effective and specialised instrument for assessing S&T innovators' sense of work gain. Moreover, it offers practical implications for enhancing the sense of work gain and innovative behaviours of S&T innovators.

A mutation in the BRI2/ITM2b gene causes loss of BRI2 protein leading to familial Danish dementia (FDD). BRI2 deficiency of FDD provokes an increase in amyloid‐β precursor protein (APP) processing since BRI2 is an inhibitor of APP proteolysis, and APP mediates the synaptic/memory deficits in FDD. APP processing is linked to Alzheimer disease (AD) pathogenesis, which is consistent with a common mechanism involving toxic APP metabolites in both dementias. We show that inhibition of APP cleavage by β‐secretase rescues synaptic/memory deficits in a mouse model of FDD. β‐cleavage of APP yields amino‐terminal‐soluble APPβ (sAPPβ) and β‐carboxyl‐terminal fragments (β‐CTF). Processing of β‐CTF by γ‐secretase releases amyloid‐β (Aβ), which is assumed to cause AD. However, inhibition of γ‐secretase did not ameliorate synaptic/memory deficits of FDD mice. These results suggest that sAPPβ and/or β‐CTF, rather than Aβ, are the toxic species causing dementia, and indicate that reducing β‐cleavage of APP is an appropriate therapeutic approach to treating human dementias. Our data and the failures of anti‐Aβ therapies in humans advise against targeting γ‐secretase cleavage of APP and/or Aβ.