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In the last few decades, the al contours of American social inequality have been transformed by the rapid growth in the prison and jail America's prisons and jails have produced a new social group, a group of social outcasts who are joined by the shared experience of incarceration, crime, poverty, racial minority, and low education. [...] carcerai inequalities are intergenerational, affecting not just those who go to prison and jail but their families and children, too.

In post-civil rights America, the ascendance of \"law-and-order\" politics and \"postracial\" ideology have given rise to what we call the penology of racial innocence. The penology of racial innocence is a framework for assessing the role of race in penal policies and institutions, one that begins with the presumption that criminal justice is innocent of racial power until proven otherwise. Countervailing sociolegal changes render this framework particularly problematic. On the one hand, the definition of racism has contracted in antidiscrimination law and in many social scientific studies of criminal justice, so that racism is defined narrowly as intentional and causally discrete harm. On the other hand, criminal justice institutions have expanded to affect historically unprecedented numbers of people of color, with penal policies broadening in ways that render the identification of racial intent and causation especially difficult. Analyses employing the penology of racial innocence examine the ever-expanding criminal justice system with limited definitions of racism, ultimately contributing to the erasure of racial power. Both racism and criminal justice operate in systemic and serpentine ways; our conceptual tools and methods, therefore, need to be equally systemic and capacious.

This study examines the total package of child support that mothers receive from the nonresident fathers of their children, by focusing on three components of total support: formal cash, informal cash, and in-kind support. Using the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, this article considers how contributions change over time and the effects of child support enforcement on these contributions. Findings suggest that total cash support received drops precipitously over the first 15 months of living apart (as informal support drops off) and then increases slightly after 45 months (as the increase in formal support overtakes the decrease in informal support). While the study finds no effect of enforcement on total support received in the first 5 years after a nonmarital birth, the substantial differences in total cash support received by the length of time that parents have not been cohabiting suggest that strong enforcement may be efficacious over time.

Research demonstrates a complex relationship between television viewing and fear of crime. Social critics assert that media depictions perpetuate the dominant cultural ideology about crime and criminal justice. This article examines whether program type differentially affects fear of crime and perceptions of the crime rate. Next, it tests whether such programming differentially affects viewers' attitudes about the criminal justice system, and if these relationships are mediated by fear. Results indicated that fear mediated the relationship between viewing nonfictional shows and lack of support for the justice system. Viewing crime dramas predicted support for the death penalty, but this relationship was not mediated by fear. News viewership was unrelated to either fear or attitudes. The results support the idea that program type matters when it comes to understanding people's fear of crime and their attitudes about criminal justice.

ABSTRACT Objective: To analyze publications regarding judicial demands related to the violation of the rights of the client who uses private health insurance in Brazil. Method: Integrative review, from September to October 2017, of national character, with complete texts online, in Portuguese and English, published between 2012 and 2017 in the Virtual Health Library portal, excluding studies that were duplicated or with indiscriminate methodology. Results: The judicial demands were for: medication (32%); ward hospitalization (11%); surgical procedures (9%); orthosis, prothesis and special materials (9%); others (9%); and diagnostic procedures, outpatient service, hospitalization in Intensive Care Units, food formulas and disposable diapers (30%). Conclusion: The prevalence of legal disputes arising from the failure in providing health service by private health insurances was observed, which makes it easier for the administrators to identify the sought health products and services in order to reorganize the administrative sphere and provide quality care. RESUMO Objetivo: Analisar as publicações a respeito de demandas judiciais relacionadas à infração aos direitos do usuário que utiliza plano privado de saúde no Brasil. Método: Revisão integrativa de setembro a outubro de 2017, com caráter nacional em português e inglês, textos online completos e publicados entre 2012 e 2017 no Portal da Biblioteca Virtual em Saúde, excluindo os duplicados e com metodologia indiscriminada. Resultados: As demandas judiciais foram: 32% medicamentos; 11% internação em enfermaria; 9% procedimentos cirúrgicos; 9% órtese, prótese e materiais especiais; 9% outros; e 30% de procedimentos diagnósticos, atendimento ambulatorial, internação em Centro de Terapia Intensiva, fórmulas alimentares e fraldas descartáveis. Conclusão: Demonstra-se a prevalência dos litígios judiciais decorrentes da falha na prestação do serviço de saúde pelos planos privados, o que facilita aos gestores identificar produtos e serviços de saúde pleiteados para reorganização da esfera administrativa e prestação de assistência com qualidade. RESUMEN Objetivo: Analizar las publicaciones acerca de las demandas judiciales relacionadas con la infracción a los derechos del usuario que utiliza un plan privado de salud en Brasil. Método: Revisión integrativa realizada entre septiembre y octubre de 2017, en ámbito nacional en los idiomas portugués e inglés, con textos completos y publicados en línea de 2012 a 2017 en el Portal de la Biblioteca Virtual en Salud, con la exclusión de los duplicados y de metodología indiscriminada. Resultados: Las demandas judiciales fueron: un 32% por medicamentos; un 11% por internación en enfermería; un 9% por procedimientos quirúrgicos; un 9% por ortesis, prótesis y materiales especiales; un 9% por otros; y un 30% por procedimientos diagnósticos, de atención ambulatoria, de internación en un Centro de Terapia Intensiva, de fórmulas alimentarias y pañales desechables. Conclusión: Se demostró una prevalencia de los litigios judiciales resultantes de una falla en la prestación del servicio de salud por los planes privados, lo que les facilita a los gestores identificar los productos y servicios de salud necesarios para reorganizar la esfera administrativa y la prestación de una asistencia con calidad.

[...] legislative changes must, however, be coupled with scientifically credible drug treatment programs. Because women's substance abuse problems play a large role in both their offending histories and in the likelihood that their children will suffer family and economic instability, we need a greater public health (as opposed to criminal justice) investment in effective interventions for drug addiction.

ABSTRACT Objective: To analyze the national and international scientific evidence available in the literature on types of judicialization of health lawsuits. Method: Integrative review, which selected primary studies in the PubMed, LILACS, Web of Science and Scopus databases, with the Descriptors: judicial decisions, health’s judicialization, Saúde (in Portuguese), Health, and the keyword: Judicial Action. Results: 30 studies were selected. In Brazil, the majority were legal claims for medicines and the other for medical errors, requests for vaccines, supplies for diabetics, food compounds, surgical procedure, examinations, among others. In international studies, lawsuits were found for medication, benefit coverage and hospitalization for psychiatric treatment. Conclusion: It is evident that the most demanded type of lawsuit was access to the medication at an international level. It is still more noticeable the little discussion on this subject, demonstrating that judicialization of medicines can indicate a reality of Brazil. RESUMEN Objetivo: Analizar las evidencias científicas nacionales e internacionales disponibles en la literatura sobre los tipos de acciones de judicialización de la salud. Método: Revisión integrativa, que seleccionó estudios primarios en las bases de datos PubMed, LILACS, Web of Science y Scopus, con los Descriptores: decisiones judiciales, judicialización de la salud, Salud, Health, y la palabra clave: Judicial Action. Resultados: Se seleccionaron 30 estudios, siendo que en Brasil, la mayoría se trataba de demandas judiciales por medicamentos y las demás por acciones por error médico, solicitud por vacunas, insumos para diabéticos, compuestos alimentarios, procedimiento quirúrgico, exámenes, entre otras. En estudios internacionales, se encontraron acciones por medicamentos, cobertura de beneficios e internación para tratamiento psiquiátrico. Conclusión: Se evidencia que el tipo de acción más demandada fue el acceso al medicamento a nivel internacional. Es aún más perceptible la poca discusión sobre esta temática, demostrando que la judicialización de medicamentos puede indicar una realidad característica de Brasil. RESUMO Objetivo: Analisar as evidências científicas nacionais e internacionais disponíveis na literatura sobre os tipos de ações de judicialização da saúde. Método: Revisão integrativa, que selecionou estudos primários nas bases de dados PubMed, LILACS, Web of Science e Scopus, com os Descritores: decisões judiciais, judicialização da saúde, Saúde, Health, e a palavra-chave: Judicial Action. Resultados: Foram selecionados 30 estudos, sendo que no Brasil, a maioria se tratava de demandas judiciais por medicamentos e as demais por ações por erro médico, solicitação por vacinas, insumos para diabéticos, compostos alimentares, procedimento cirúrgico, exames, entre outras. Em estudos internacionais, foram encontradas ações por medicamentos, cobertura de benefícios e internação para tratamento psiquiátrico. Conclusão: Evidencia-se que o tipo de ação mais demandada foi o acesso ao medicamento a nível internacional. Ainda é mais perceptível a pouca discussão sobre essa temática, demonstrando que a judicialização de medicamentos pode indicar uma realidade característica do Brasil.

In this article, we analyze ethnoracial patterns in youth perceptions and responses to rights violations and advance a new model of legal mobilization that includes formal, quasi-, and extralegal action. Slightly more than half of the 5,461 students in our sample reported past rights violations involving discrimination, harassment, freedom of expression/assembly, and due process violations in disciplinary procedures. Students, regardless of race, are more likely to take extralegal than formal legal actions in response to perceived rights violations. Self-identified African American and Latino/a students are significantly more likely than white and Asian American students to perceive rights violations and are more likely to claim they would take formal legal action in response to hypothetical rights violations. However, when they perceive rights violations, African American and Asian American students are no more likely than whites to take formal legal action and Latino/a students are less likely than whites to take formal legal action. We draw on in-depth interviews with youth and adults—which we interlace with our quantitative findings—to explore the interpretive dynamics underlying these survey findings, and we offer several theoretical and methodological implications of our work.

In 1973, New York's Governor Nelson Rockefeller responded to panic about soaring heroin use by renouncing his aggressive treatment programs and enacting the most punitive drug policy in the United States. His \"Rockefeller Drug Laws\" mandated sentences up to life in prison for selling any narcotics. These punishments, comparable to the penalties for murder, served as models for subsequent \"War on Drugs\" policies enacted across the nation. This article explores the ideological and political work accomplished by this high profile legislation— for policy makers, for members of the general public who clamored for \"get tough\" strategies, and for the drug users targeted by the statutes. The laws were a repudiation of liberal treatment programs and specialists' expertise, and provided a forum to remake the much-maligned welfare state into a stern, macho vehicle for establishing order in society. Increasingly punitive policies constricted the rights of drug users by rhetorically constructing \"addicts\" and \"pushers\" as outside of the polity and as the antithesis of full citizens. Therefore, the Rockefeller Drug Laws not only had devastating effects on drug offenders, but also were instrumental in the profound renegotiation of the state's role and responsibilities.

The effects of lynchings on criminal justice outcomes have seldom been examined. Recent findings also are inconsistent about the effects of race on imprisonments. This study uses a pooled time-series design to assess lynching and racial threat effects on state imprisonments from 1972 to 2000. After controlling for Republican strength, conservatism, and other factors, lynch rates explain the growth in admission rates. The findings also show that increases in black residents produce subsequent expansions in imprisonments that likely are attributable to white reactions to this purported menace. But after the percentage of blacks reaches a substantial threshold-and the potential black vote becomes large enough to begin to reduce these harsh punishments-reductions in prison admissions occur. These results also confirm a political version of racial threat theory by indicating that increased Republican political strength produces additional imprisonments.