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Observing writing : insights from keystroke logging and handwriting
\"Observing Writing: Insights from Keystroke Logging and Handwriting is a timely volume appearing twelve years after the Studies in Writing volume Computer Keystroke Logging and Writing (Sullivan & Lindgren, 2006). The 2006 volume provided the reader with a fundamental account of keystroke logging, a methodology in which a piece of software records every keystroke, cursor and mouse movement a writer undertakes during a writing session. This new volume highlights current theoretical and applied research questions in keystroke logging and handwriting research that observes writing. In this volume, contributors from a range of disciplines, including linguistics, psychology, neuroscience, modern languages, and education, present their research that considers the cognitive and socio-cultural complexities of writing texts in academic and professional settings\"-- Provided by publisher.
Book
The roles of handwriting and keyboarding in writing: a meta-analytic review
According to the simple view of writing (Berninger, Abbott, Abbott, Graham, & Richards, 2002), the two important components of transcription in writing are handwriting and keyboarding, the third one being spelling. The purpose of this paper is to review the contribution of two writing modes—handwriting and keyboarding to writing performance. In the first section, the contribution of handwriting fluency to writing performance was explored through moderator analyses. We found that handwriting fluency contributes to writing significantly and consistently, and significantly contributes to specific writing measures (e.g., writing quality, writing fluency, substantive quality). We then explored the relationship between handwriting and keyboarding, and compared their contributions to writing. Results indicated that performance on fluency of handwriting and keyboarding were significantly related, particularly on speed. Writing qualities under each mode were relatively competitive; however, keyboarding allows for faster writing. The findings from the two sections emphasized the importance of handwriting on writing development even though keyboarding is accessible.
Journal Article
What and When Second-Language Learners Revise When Responding to Timed Writing Tasks on the Computer: The Roles of Task Type, Second Language Proficiency, and Keyboarding Skills
This study contributes to the literature on second language (L2) learners' revision behavior by describing what, when, and how often L2 learners revise their texts when responding to timed writing tasks on the computer and by examining the effects of task type, L2 proficiency, and keyboarding skills on what and when L2 learners revise. Each of 54 participants with 2 levels of L2 proficiency (low vs. high) and 2 levels of keyboarding skills (low vs. high) responded to timed independent and integrated writing tasks on the computer. A keystroke logging program recorded each participant's writing activities. Keystroke data were coded in terms of participants' revision behavior (e.g., orientation, linguistic domain, and temporal location of revisions) and then compared across tasks and learner groups. The findings suggest that the participants tended to revise form more often than content and that L2 proficiency and, to a lesser extent, task type, but not keyboarding skills, affected participants' revision behaviors during the timed writing tasks. Overall, the participants made more precontextual (that is, at the point of inscription) revisions than contextual revisions (that is, revisions of already written text), made considerably more typography and language revisions than content revisions, revised more frequently at the phrase and word level than at higher levels, and tended to make precontextual revisions more frequently in the first two thirds of the writing process and contextual revisions most frequently in the last third of the writing session. The findings and their implications for practice and research are discussed. (Verlag).
Journal Article
Understanding the keystroke log: the effect of writing task on keystroke features
Keystroke logging is used to automatically record writers’ unfolding typing process and to get insight into moments when they struggle composing text. However, it is not clear which and how features from the keystroke log map to higher-level cognitive processes, such as planning and revision. This study aims to investigate the sensitivity of frequently used keystroke features across tasks with different cognitive demands.Two keystroke datasets were analyzed: one consisting of a copy task and an email writing task, and one with a larger difference in cognitive demand: a copy task and an academic summary task. The differences across tasks were modeled using Bayesian linear mixed effects models. Posterior distributions were used to compare the strength and direction of the task effects across features and datasets. The results showed that the average of all interkeystroke intervals were found to be stable across tasks. Features related to the time between words and (sub)sentences only differed between the copy and the academic task. Lastly, keystroke features related to the number of words, revisions, and total time, differed across tasks in both datasets. To conclude, our results indicate that the latter features are related to cognitive load or task complexity. In addition, our research shows that keystroke features are sensitive to small differences in the writing tasks at hand.
Journal Article
The contributions of transcription skills to paper-based and computer-based text composing in the early years
Digital tools are an integral part of most writing communities across the globe, enhancing the criticality of gaining a comprehensive understanding of both paper and computer-based writing acquisition and development. The relationships between transcription skills and children’s paper-based writing performance are well documented. Less is known about the relationships between transcription skills and children’s computer-based writing performance. In this study, we examined the unique contributions of transcription skills (i.e., handwriting automaticity, keyboarding automaticity and spelling) in predicting Grade 2 students (N = 544) paper-based and computer-based writing performance (i.e., compositional quality and productivity) after controlling for other student-level factors (i.e., gender, word reading, reading comprehension, and attitudes towards writing) and classroom-level factors (i.e., amount of time teaching handwriting, keyboarding, and spelling). Multilevel modelling showed that, compared to handwriting automaticity, spelling skills accounted for a larger percentage of unique variance in predicting paper-based compositional quality; handwriting automaticity accounted for a larger percentage of unique variance in explaining paper-based compositional productivity. Findings further showed that keyboarding automaticity accounted for a larger percentage of unique variance in students’ computer-based compositional quality and productivity when compared to spelling. Gender and word reading skills were also found to be uniquely related to students’ writing performance across modalities. These findings underscore the need for educators to address and nurture the automaticity of inscription and spelling skills to enhance students' compositional quality and productivity, whether in traditional paperbased or computer-based text composing.
Journal Article
A systematic approach to searching: an efficient and complete method to develop literature searches
Creating search strategies for systematic reviews, finding the best balance between sensitivity and specificity, and translating search strategies between databases is challenging. Several methods describe standards for systematic search strategies, but a consistent approach for creating an exhaustive search strategy has not yet been fully described in enough detail to be fully replicable. The authors have established a method that describes step by step the process of developing a systematic search strategy as needed in the systematic review. This method describes how single-line search strategies can be prepared in a text document by typing search syntax (such as field codes, parentheses, and Boolean operators) before copying and pasting search terms (keywords and free-text synonyms) that are found in the thesaurus. To help ensure term completeness, we developed a novel optimization technique that is mainly based on comparing the results retrieved by thesaurus terms with those retrieved by the free-text search words to identify potentially relevant candidate search terms. Macros in Microsoft Word have been developed to convert syntaxes between databases and interfaces almost automatically. This method helps information specialists in developing librarian-mediated searches for systematic reviews as well as medical and health care practitioners who are searching for evidence to answer clinical questions. The described method can be used to create complex and comprehensive search strategies for different databases and interfaces, such as those that are needed when searching for relevant references for systematic reviews, and will assist both information specialists and practitioners when they are searching the biomedical literature.
Journal Article
Formatting and Loss of Space – Considerations (including Annex Typing & Loss)
Considerations about spatial concepts today have to take into account the actual ongoing loss of space. And of how such a process is able to generate a multitude of new spaces, at the same time. What both kind of processes, juxtaposed as they are, have in common, and what their relation to still another kind of processes is, namely such of formatting, of willingly creating and simulataneously, unwillingly generating a multitude of formats existing in parallel to each other which impact our everyday lifes, and which rest upon basic assumptions about ‘space’ and ‘reality’ in general. Related to these processes is a loss of space, in actual terms.
Journal Article
WHAT CAN L2 WRITERS’ PAUSING BEHAVIOR TELL US ABOUT THEIR L2 WRITING PROCESSES?
When responding to a writing task, writers spend a significant amount of their time not writing. These periods of physical inactivity, or pauses, during writing provide observable and measurable cues as to when, where, and how long writers halt to plan and/or revise their texts. Consequently, examining writers’ pausing patterns can provide important insights into the cognitive processes that writers employ when composing and the impact of various individual, task, and contextual factors on those processes. This article discusses theory and research on writers’ pausing behavior; how pause analysis can be used to investigate second language (L2) learners’ writing processes; challenges in researching writers’ pausing behavior (e.g., defining pauses); and some strategies to address these challenges. Next, the article illustrates how L2 writers’ pause data can be collected, analyzed, and interpreted, using keystroke logging data from a research project that aimed to examine the effects of task type, L2 proficiency, and keyboarding skills on L2 learners’ writing processes when writing on the computer. The article concludes with a call for more research on L2 writers’ pausing behavior, particularly how L2 writers’ pausing behavior relates to L2 writing outcomes and development across learners, contexts, and time.
Journal Article
Handwriting versus keyboarding: Does writing modality affect quality of narratives written by beginning writers?
To date, there is no clear evidence to support choosing handwriting over keyboarding or vice versa as the modality children should use when they first learn to write. 102 Norwegian first-grade children from classrooms that used both electronic touchscreen keyboard on a digital tablet and pencil-and-paper for writing instruction wrote narratives in both modalities three months after starting school and were assessed on several literacy-related skills. The students’ texts were then analysed for a range of text features, and were rated holistically. Data were analysed using Bayesian methods. These permitted evaluation both of evidence in favour of a difference between modalities and of evidence in favour of there being no difference. We found moderate to strong evidence in favour of no difference between modalities. We also found moderate to strong evidence against modality effects being moderated by students’ literacy ability. Findings may be specific to students who are just starting to write, but suggest that for children at this stage of development writing performance is independent of modality.
Journal Article
Modeling Basic Writing Processes From Keystroke Logs
The goal of this study is to model pauses extracted from writing keystroke logs as a way of characterizing the processes students use in essay composition. Low-level timing data were modeled, the interkey interval and its subtype, the intraword duration, thought to reflect processes associated with keyboarding skills and composition fluency. Heavy-tailed probability distributions (lognormal and stable distributions) were fit to individual students' data. Both density functions fit reasonably well, and estimated parameters were found to be robust across prompts designed to assess student proficiency for the same writing purpose, in addition, estimated parameters for both density functions were statistically significantly associated with human essay scores after accounting for total time spent writing the essay, a result consistent with cognitive theory on the role of low-level processes in writing.
Journal Article