Explore the vast range of titles available.

Several studies on L3 lexicon, and recently also some on L3 syntax, have convincingly shown a qualitative difference between the acquisition of a true L2 and the subsequent acquisition of an L3. Some studies even indicate that L2 takes on a stronger role than L1 in the initial state of L3 syntax (e.g. Bardel and Falk, 2007; Rothman and Cabrelli Amaro, 2010). In this article we further investigate syntactic transfer from L1/L2 to L3 in learners at an intermediate level of proficiency in the target language. Data have been obtained from 44 learners of German as L3, testing the placement of object pronouns in both main and subordinate clauses in a grammaticality judgement/correction task (GJCT). The learners constitute two groups (both n = 22): One group has English as L1 and French as L2 and the other group has French as L1 and English as L2. This particular combination of background languages allows us to pinpoint the source of transfer, since object placement is pre-verbal in French and post-verbal in English, this being applied in both main and subordinate clauses. In target language (TL) German, however, the object placement varies between pre-verbal in the sub clause and post-verbal in the main clause. The two groups behave differently as to both acceptance and rejection of the test items (60 grammatical and ungrammatical main and sub clauses with object pronouns). This difference is significant and can be ascribed to their L2s, respectively. Our results thus show that the L2 transfers into the L3 even at an intermediate level, and on the basis of this we claim a strong role for the L2 status factor.

Applied linguistic work claims that multilinguals’ non-native languages interfere with one another based on similarities in cognitive factors like proficiency or age of acquisition. Two experiments explored how trilinguals regulate control of native- and non-native-language words. Experiment 1 tested 46 Dutch–English–French trilinguals in a monitoring task. Participants decided if phonemes were present in the target language name of a picture, phonemes of non-target language translations resulted in longer response times and more false alarms compared to phonemes not present in any translation (Colomé, 2001). The second language (English) interfered more than the first (Dutch) when trilinguals monitored in their third language (French). In Experiment 2, 95 bilinguals learned an artificial language to explore the possibility that the language from which a bilingual learns a third language provides practice managing known-language interference. Language of instruction modulated results, suggesting that learning conditions may reduce interference effects previously attributed to cognitive factors.

Heritage speakers who re-learn their childhood language in adulthood are an important group for the study of L3 acquisition. Such re-learners have selective advantages over other L2/L3 learners in phonetics/phonology, but lack a global advantage at re-learning the prestige variety of their L1. These learners show asymmetrical transfer effects in morphosyntax: transfer occurs only from the dominant language. Two tentative explanations for this asymmetry are suggested. First, re-learners may deploy the skills acquired in a classroom setting, where they have used only their dominant language. Second, re-learners may implicitly strive to increase the typological distance between their childhood language and the language of classroom instruction. These findings have implications for models of L3/Ln learning: the Cumulative Enhancement Model, the Typological Proximity Model, and the L2 Status Factor Model. The data discussed in this paper are most consistent with the latter model, but they also highlight the significance of the typological distance between languages under acquisition.

This article serves as a state-of the-science review of the blossoming field of generative third language (L3) acquisition as well as an introduction to this special issue on the same topic. We present and argue for the relevance of adult L3/Ln acquisition for many perennial questions that have sat at the core of linguistic approaches to adult language acquisition since the Principles and Parameters framework was first adopted into second language acquisition (SLA; e.g. Flynn, 1985, l987; Liceras, 1985; White, 1985a, 1985b; Schwartz, 1986). Furthermore, we highlight the unique, specific questions that have emerged from studying L3/Ln from a generative perspective thus far while suggesting refinements to these questions and additional ones that should emerge in future inquiry.

The fact that learners of a new language often already have experience of one or more other non-native languages has come into focus with the growing interest in multilingualism as a linguistic phenomenon and multilingual education as a practical concern. Third language or L3 has become a regular term fairly recently in dealing with the complex constellations of languages that occur with multilingual speakers and exploring the roles of these languages in the acquisition process. The purpose of the present chapter is to examine and discuss the construct of L3 in the context of the individual speaker’s multilingual repertoire and language learning. I first touch upon the wide occurrence of bi- and multilingualism in the world of today, especially as promoted by globalization and modern communication technology, and individual multilingualism (plurilingualism) as the normal form of linguistic competence that develops in human speakers. I then discuss the speaker/learner’s linguistic repertoire as a dynamic complex system, as well as the mutual connection between the developing repertoire and the process of language use and acquisition in specific situations in time. What we mean by L3 is seldom reflected on in the literature on so-called third language acquisition (TLA). In defining L3, we should ask what kind of concept we need in order to represent a speaker’s non-first non-native language. It should be a concept which is cognitively grounded and compatible with the terms L1 and L2 as these are commonly used in SLA studies. This leads to a definition of L3 and a discussion of its cognitive role as “tertiary” in relation to pre-existing L1s and L2s. Cross-linguistic influence becomes more complex when more background languages than a single L1 are involved, since both L1s and L2s can become activated in the process. Recent literature has explored a range of factors that may determine which language will dominate as source language when acquiring an L3, and formed conflicting hypotheses regarding their relative strength. I examine some problems that are reflected in this research, including the “L2 status issue”. This has implications for understanding the potential benefit of a multilingual language background in language learning.

This chapter provides a nuanced view of the L2 status factor model, emphasizing explicit metalinguistic knowledge as the key factor governing transfer, together with individual differences in working memory and the operations associated with it. We argue that individual differences regarding the degree of explicit metalinguistic knowledge attained either in L1 or in L2 and differences when it comes to working memory, attention and noticing should be taken in consideration when accounting for transfer from previously acquired or learned languages in L3 learning.

Radiotherapy is a well-known cause of premature ovarian failure (POF). Therefore, we investigated the molecular influence of genistein (GEN) on the ovarian reserve of rats exposed to ϒ-radiation. Female Sprague Dawley rats were exposed to a 3.2 Gy γ-radiation to induce POF and/or treated with either GEN (5 mg/kg, i.p.) or Ethinyl estradiol (E2; 0.1 mg/kg, s.c.), once daily for 10 days. GEN was able to conserve primordial follicles stock and population of growing follicles accompanied with reduction in atretic follicles. GEN restored the circulating estradiol and anti-Müllerian hormone levels which were diminished after irradiation. GEN has potent antioxidant activity against radiation-mediated oxidative stress through upregulating endogenous glutathione levels and glutathione peroxidase activity. Mechanistically, GEN inhibited the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis by repressing Bax expression and augmenting Bcl-2 expression resulted in reduced Bax/Bcl-2 ratio with subsequent reduction in cytochrome c and caspase 3 expression. These promising effects of GEN are associated with improving granulosa cells proliferation. On the molecular basis, GEN reversed ovarian apoptosis through up-regulation of ER-β and FOXL-2 with downregulation of TGF-β expression, therefore inhibiting transition of primordial follicles to more growing follicles. GEN may constitute a novel therapeutic modality for safeguarding ovarian function of females’ cancer survivors.

Human granulosa cells in different stages are essential for maintaining normal ovarian function, and granulosa cell defect is the main cause of ovarian dysfunction. To address this problem, it is necessary to induce functional granulosa cells at different stages in vitro. In this study, we established a reprogramming method to induce early‐ and late‐stage granulosa cells with different steroidogenic abilities. We used an AMH‐fluorescence‐reporter system to screen candidate factors for cellular reprogramming and generated human induced granulosa‐like cells (hiGC) by overexpressing FOXL2 and NR5A1. AMH‐EGFP+ hiGC resembled human cumulus cells in transcriptome profiling and secreted high levels of oestrogen and progesterone, similar to late‐stage granulosa cells at antral or preovulatory stage. Moreover, we identified CD55 as a cell surface marker that can be used to isolate early‐stage granulosa cells. CD55+ AMH‐EGFP‐ hiGC secreted high levels of oestrogen but low levels of progesterone, and their transcriptome profiles were more similar to early‐stage granulosa cells. More importantly, CD55+ hiGC transplantation alleviated polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) in a mouse model. Therefore, hiGC provides a cellular model to study the developmental program of human granulosa cells and has potential to treat PCOS. Overexpression of FOXL2 and NR5A1 reprogrammed human fibroblast cells into late‐stage and early‐stage granulosa cells respectively. AMH‐EGFP+ hiGCs secret high levels of estradiol and progesterone, and CD55+ hiGCs secret high level of estradiol. CD55+ hiGC transplantation can alleviate DHEA‐induced PCOS and has potential for cell therapy of PCOS.