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Under the framework of growth accounting, this paper introduces four heterogeneity characteristics of labor, namely, educational level, age, gender and industry, constructs a cross classification matrix of employment, labor compensation and working hours, and calculates the labor input (volume) of the whole country and of 19 industries during 2000–2018. Then it decomposes the volume into quantity and quality parts to analyze the total amount of labor input and the performance of industry labor input. The results are as follows. First, during the research period, the annual growth rate of labor input was 2.5%, and 78.8% of that came from the growth of labor input quality. The growth of labor input was mainly resulted from the improvement of educational level and the optimization of industrial structure. Second, in 2018, the proportions of labor input of the primary, secondary and tertiary sectors were 13.76%, 31.06% and 55.18% respectively, and the transfer speed of labor input to the secondary and tertiary sectors was higher than that of the quantity structure; the labor input volume in the new economy and related industries in the tertiary sector has been greatly increased. Third, the index method-based labor productivity (ILP) of some producer service and consumer service industries was relatively low, and the growth of total industry output mainly attributed to the increase of labor input and the expansion of industrial scale. The improvement of labor input quality has become the key to the growth of labor input in China, and the improvement of educational level is the core power to improve the labor input quality.

Purpose The relationship between farm size and land productivity is a hotly debated issue in the study of agricultural economics and development economics. The purpose of this paper is to explore the causes leading to the inverse productivity relationship by examining the relationship between farm size and factor inputs. Design/methodology/approach With a large panel data set of farm households in China during 2010–2011, this study uses the factor demand models to examine the relationship between farm size and per-mu labor and non-labor inputs while employing a stochastic frontier production function in determining the difference of labor efforts in farming operation across farm sizes. Moreover, the models for value-added margins and profits are used to further determine producer behavior of small-size farms. Findings Results of this study show that, as compared to larger farms, smaller farms not only utilize more labor and non-labor inputs per mu, but also benefit from a higher labor effort. Moreover, smaller farms concentrate more on grain output and cash costs while focusing less on the family labor input costs in an effort to maximize value-added margins rather than profits. The higher yields on smaller farms are thus a result of the utilization of a relatively higher level of labor and non-labor inputs along with skilled-oriented precision farming technology. The inverse productivity relationship is explained by the behavior of small-size producers with employment constraints, leading to smaller farms generating a higher yield than larger farms. Originality/value While Sen (1966), Feder (1985), Eswaran and Kotwal (1986) and others have theoretically derived the causal relationship between the incomplete factor markets, especially incomplete labor markets, and the inverse productivity, empirical studies to test the causal relationships are limited. In particular, a solid foundation based on an empirical analysis is lacking when it comes to explaining the inverse productivity in China. Results of this study are expected to have significant policy implications in terms of the understanding of small-size producer behavior and the associated mechanism underlying the inverse relationship between farm size and land productivity.

Sustainable intensification of agricultural production is needed to ensure increased productivity relative to inputs. Short-term yield returns and labor input are major determinants of the fate of sustainable intensification options on smallholder farms in sub-Saharan Africa because labor shortage is often acute, and most farmers lack access to labor-saving technologies. We assessed the relationship between maize grain yield change and labor input from a total of 28 published papers (631 data pairs) including subsets of data pairs within specific sustainable intensification practices. Among the reviewed technologies, manually dug planting basins showed ratios between the change in yield and change in labor inputs (ΔY/ΔL) below 1, suggesting that labor demand increased more than yield. In contrast, ridging showed average ΔY/ΔL values ≥ 2. No-till showed high ΔY/ΔL (average ≥ 1.7) when combined with herbicides but average ΔY/ΔL ≤ 1 (total labor) when manually weeded. Manually weeded rotations showed average ΔY/ΔL ≥ 1 and manually weeded intercropping systems average ΔY/ΔL around 1. The relations revealed four scenarios: high yield returns but low labor demand, high yield returns and labor demand, low yield returns and labor demand, and low yield returns but high labor demand. High yield with high labor demand requires mostly investments in machinery and/or herbicides to reduce labor input. Low yield with low labor demand requires improved crop management, whereas low yield with high labor demand requires a combination of improved crop management and investments to reduce labor. This is the first comprehensive assessment showing that the sustainable intensification options being considered for smallholder farmers may increase crop yield but also labor demand. Options that include mechanization and herbicides at low cost are likely to be adopted due to their reduction effect on drudgery and total labor input.

PurposeDigital transformation is a confidence booster in intrapreneurship, but few have examined its impact on intrapreneurship. Further, quantitative analyses exploring the impact of Chinese enterprises' digital transformation on intrapreneurship at the micro-level are rare. Most enterprises do not have the dividend for digital transformation, and few enterprises have successfully achieved digital transformation through intrapreneurship, internal management re-engineering and technological innovation. This study investigates the effect of digital transformation on intrapreneurship in Chinese real economy enterprises.Design/methodology/approachThe study develops and tests a theoretical model that digital transformation impacts intrapreneurship by promoting working capital turnover and furtherly influencing labor input. Panel data of 1,638 Chinese-listed companies between 2007 and 2020 were used to complete the empirical test.FindingsDigital transformation impacted labor input, with an inverted-U shaped relationship between the two, and labor input significantly stimulated intrapreneurship. This effect promoted labor input's impact on working capital. Chinese real economy enterprises generally increase labor investment to promote intrapreneurship. Heterogeneity analysis revealed that enterprises' asset scale and ownership attributes uniformly affected labor input.Originality/valueThis study provided empirical evidence of the promotional effect of real economy enterprises' digital transformation on intrapreneurship. Further, it advanced the literature by examining this relationship at the micro-level. Moreover, the data sample was long-term and included most industries, thus providing representative results with practical implications.

We compare the long-term output and current account effects of pension reforms that increase the retirement age with those of reforms that cut pension benefits, conditional on reforms achieving similar fiscal targets. We show the presence of a policy trade-off. Pension reforms that increase the retirement age have a large positive effect on output, but a small (and often negative) effect on the current account. In contrast, reforms that cut pension benefits improve the current account balance but reduce output. Mixed pension reforms, which extend the working life and cut pension benefits, can simultaneously boost output and the current account.

Purpose : This study examines the impact of labor input, construction costs, and building permits on production construction.   Theoritical Framework : Nowadays, construction projects are growing. Construction projects require serious management because the larger the project, the more complex the dependence on one job to another in order to achieve the desired results.   Design/Methodology/Approach : The secondary data explore from European data obtained from Eurostat from 2016 to 2019. Analyzing and proving hypotheses using Smart PLS software.   Findings : The labor input has impact on production construction. The Construction Cost and Building Permits are not impcat to the Production Construction. Efforts to increase business creation should be a development priority in Europe. This is not only related to efforts to achieve the demographic bonus, but also efforts to achieve increased welfare for the Europe community.   Research implication : Regional revenue is money that goes into the regional treasury. In implementation of decentralization, regional revenues consist of revenue and financing. Regional income is a recognized right of local government as in the period concerned, while regional financing is all revenues that need to be paid back and/or expenses that will be received back, either in the relevant fiscal year as well as in other fiscal years next.   Practical implication : There is potential for the development and energy sources, increasing mastery of technology and quality of human resources, development of strategic industries, increasing sector between European and non-European countries.   Social implication : The construction sector is one sector that can create jobs and encourage the transfer of technology that is useful for social aspects.   Originality/Value :  Enhancement productivity and quality of human resources to be important factor in the effort to reach the potential bonus demographics in Europe. In an effort to achieve demographic bonus opportunities, then in European countries it is expected focus on improving job creation and business for the population young age due to the number of young people which is relatively less. If this population group has the ability increase revenue and productivity, then the country's economy can be improved which in turn can promote growth economy in achieving the demographic bonus in future.

Efficient measurement of labor input is a critical aspect of on-site control and management in construction projects, as labor input serves as the primary and direct determinant of project outcomes. However, conventional manual inspection methods are off-line, tedious, and fail to capture their effectiveness. To address this issue, this research presents a novel method that leverages Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) sensors attached to hand tools during construction activities to measure labor input in a timely and precise manner. This approach encompasses three steps: temporal–spatial feature extraction, self-similarity matrix calculation, and local specific structure identification. The underlying principle is based on the hypothesis that repetitive use data from hand tools can be systematically collected, analyzed, and converted into quantitative measures of labor input by the automatic recognition of repetition patterns. To validate this concept and assess its feasibility for general construction activities, we developed a preliminary prototype and conducted a pilot study focusing on rotation counting for a screw-connection task. A comparative analysis between the ground truth and the predicted results obtained from the experiments demonstrates the effectiveness and efficiency of measuring labor input using IMU sensors on hand tools, with a relative error of less than 5%. To minimize the measurement error, further work is currently underway for accurate activity segmentation and fast feature extraction, enabling deeper insights into on-site construction behaviors.

This study proposes a new approach of measuring compliance costs of rules and regulations by focusing on labor input, and estimates the compliance costs in Japan based on a survey of workers. According to the results, the working hours required to comply with rules and regulations account for more than 20% of total labor input. By industry, this cost is higher in the finance and insurance industry followed by the health and welfare industry, and by firm size, it is higher in large firms. If these costs were halved, overall economic productivity would increase by about 8%.

Abstract—The article provides the methodology for assessing the total labor input in the economy on the basis of a symmetric input–output table. The main directions of its use in modern economics are outlined taking into account the surveyed world experience. The study presents an analysis of estimates of total labor costs in the Russian economy calculated industry-by-industry.

Part-time employment is an increasingly important feature of the U.S. labor market, yet little is known about how earnings determinants differ between full-time and part-time pharmacists. Few prior studies have compared earnings models across these groups, but most have relied on small or geographically limited samples. Moreover, the dynamic and rapidly evolving nature of the labor market makes this study especially timely, as most prior research on pharmacist earnings is based on older data. This study examined earnings determination separately for full-time and part-time pharmacists, estimating the influence of work input, human capital, demographic characteristics, and job-related features within each group. Data were obtained from the 2019–2022 American Community Survey (ACS), a large, continuous, nationally representative survey conducted annually by the U.S. Census Bureau. The sample included 12,064 pharmacists (4667 men and 7397 women) aged 25–64 years, practicing in the U.S. Ordinary least-squares equations were estimated separately for male and female pharmacists within each employment category, allowing comparison of the direction, magnitude, and statistical significance of covariates across groups. Results revealed notable differences in the earnings effects of several factors between full-time and part-time pharmacists, highlighting the interaction of individual choices and structural market forces in shaping compensation. These findings can inform workforce planning and guide the development of targeted job-related incentives to support retention and satisfaction across employment types.