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"LIMESTONE"
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Limestone and other sedimentary rocks
This book teaches young readers how sedimentary rock forms, introduces several kinds of sedimentary rock, and explains why sedimentary rock is important.
Book
Review of Passive Systems for Acid Mine Drainage Treatment
When appropriately designed and maintained, passive systems can provide long-term, efficient, and effective treatment for many acid mine drainage (AMD) sources. Passive AMD treatment relies on natural processes to neutralize acidity and to oxidize or reduce and precipitate metal contaminants. Passive treatment is most suitable for small to moderate AMD discharges of appropriate chemistry, but periodic inspection and maintenance plus eventual renovation are generally required. Passive treatment technologies can be separated into biological and geochemical types. Biological passive treatment technologies generally rely on bacterial activity, and may use organic matter to stimulate microbial sulfate reduction and to adsorb contaminants; constructed wetlands, vertical flow wetlands, and bioreactors are all examples. Geochemical systems place alkalinity-generating materials such as limestone in contact with AMD (direct treatment) or with fresh water up-gradient of the AMD. Most passive treatment systems employ multiple methods, often in series, to promote acid neutralization and oxidation and precipitation of the resulting metal flocs. Before selecting an appropriate treatment technology, the AMD conditions and chemistry must be characterized. Flow, acidity and alkalinity, metal, and dissolved oxygen concentrations are critical parameters. This paper reviews the current state of passive system technology development, provides results for various system types, and provides guidance for sizing and effective operation.
Journal Article
3D Inversion of Transient Electromagnetic Data for Concealed Karst Cavern Detection
The karst cavern is common undesirable geological body in limestone areas, which can bring great safety hazards to the construction and operation of tunnels, bridges and highways. Transient electromagnetic method (TEM) can effectively detect hidden karst structures based on the difference in electrical property between the karst cavern and the surroundings. Traditionally, 1D inversion is commonly used for the interpretation of TEM data due to its high efficiency. However, this may lead to artifacts due to 2D or 3D effects in practical surveys. In this study, we present a Gaussian-Newton approach to 3D inversion of TEM data for karst cavern detection. The numerical test on synthetic TEM data demonstrates that 3D inversion can effectively delineate the location and geometry of concealed karst cavern compared to the 1D inversion results.
Journal Article
Stress generated by the freeze–thaw process in open cracks of rock walls: empirical model for tight limestone
In mountainous areas, freezing is a prominent phenomenon for weathering processes in rock walls. A freezing front penetrates rock crack networks and causes its propagation. To study the evolution of rock mass stability, a suitable model of stress generated by freezing in open rock cracks is needed. This stress evaluated by the simple volume expansion model in a closed crack is too high to be realistic. In this paper, we present an assessment method for this stress and some results. Different experiments on notched limestone specimens submitted to freeze–thaw cycles were performed. Three different tight limestones (Larrys, Chamesson, Pierre de Lens) were tested. Actually, the stress generated by freezing begins to grow at the top of the notch where an ice plug is created and makes it possible for higher stresses to develop in deeper parts of the notch. Consequently, the stress induced by freezing depends on the geometry of the open crack represented by the notch. This value is, however, limited by the permeability of the surrounding rock matrix. A model of the stress evolution generated by freezing along an open crack was established and its envelope curve, named maximum stress, was parameterized. This maximum stress generated by freezing along the crack is completely defined by knowledge of the pore network of the limestone matrix and the geometry of the crack.
Journal Article
Sources and Markets of Limestone Flour in Poland
Limestone flour is used in a variety of industrial sectors such as power and heat generation, glass-making, paper-making, the construction industry and construction materials manufacturing, the production of agriculture, plastics and rubber goods, as well as coal mining, and environmental protection. This paper aims to characterize and interpret the limestone flour supply and demand trends in the main applications in Poland in the last decade. In order to track the changes of domestic consumption for this commodity, its major users have been surveyed along with analyses of data from the Statistics Poland (GUS). The results showed that during 2009–2018 the coal-fired power plants became the biggest customer of limestone flour utilized as a sorbent in the wet flue gas desulfurization method (FGD). This method has been implemented in the vast majority of Polish power plants. It is estimated that in the last decade the total annual production capacity of limestone flour at the milling plants in Poland increased by 1.5 million tons, to around 6.0 million tons. In the forthcoming years, this is expected to continue to increase despite EU restrictions on fossil fuel use (especially hard coal and lignite). Other promising areas of future growth are: for limestone flour of medium quality—the construction materials manufacturing and the construction industry itself, for limestone flour of the highest quality—the glass industry, while for fine-grained limestone flour of high-quality—the plastics and rubber industries. In terms of resource security, it is worth noting that Poland is a country rich in limestone deposits. However, only some of them, that is, limestone rock varieties of the Jurassic and Devonian ages from the Kielce vicinity in central Poland are suitable for the production of high-quality limestone flour for the needs of the mentioned industries. The paper analyses the potential of the limestone flour production from the available limestone rock deposits with respect to the current and future needs of the domestic market in Poland.
Journal Article
Iron controls over di-nitrogen fixation in karst tropical forest
Limestone tropical forests represent a meaningful fraction of the land area in Central America (25%) and Southeast Asia (40%). These ecosystems are marked by high biological diversity, CO2 uptake capacity, and high pH soils, the latter making them fundamentally different from the majority of lowland tropical forest areas in the Amazon and Congo basins. Here, we examine the role of bedrock geology in determining biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) rates in volcanic (low pH) vs. limestone (high pH) tropical forests located in the Maya Mountains of Belize. We experimentally test how BNF in the leaf-litter responds to nitrogen, phosphorus, molybdenum, and iron additions across different parent materials. We find evidence for iron limitation of BNF rates in limestone forests during the wet but not dry season (response ratio 3.2 ± 0.2; P = 0.03). In contrast, BNF in low pH volcanic forest soil was stimulated by the trace-metal molybdenum during the dry season. The parent-material induced patterns of limitation track changes in siderophore activity and iron bioavailability among parent materials. These findings point to a new role for iron in regulating BNF in karst tropical soils, consistent with observations for other high pH systems such as the open ocean and calcareous agricultural ecosystems.
Journal Article
Hydrogeological properties of fault zones in a karstified carbonate aquifer (Northern Calcareous Alps, Austria)
This study presents a comparative, field-based hydrogeological characterization of exhumed, inactive fault zones in low-porosity Triassic dolostones and limestones of the Hochschwab massif, a carbonate unit of high economic importance supplying 60 % of the drinking water of Austria’s capital, Vienna. Cataclastic rocks and sheared, strongly cemented breccias form low-permeability (<1 mD) domains along faults. Fractured rocks with fracture densities varying by a factor of 10 and fracture porosities varying by a factor of 3, and dilation breccias with average porosities >3 % and permeabilities >1,000 mD form high-permeability domains. With respect to fault-zone architecture and rock content, which is demonstrated to be different for dolostone and limestone, four types of faults are presented. Faults with single-stranded minor fault cores, faults with single-stranded permeable fault cores, and faults with multiple-stranded fault cores are seen as conduits. Faults with single-stranded impermeable fault cores are seen as conduit-barrier systems. Karstic carbonate dissolution occurs along fault cores in limestones and, to a lesser degree, dolostones and creates superposed high-permeability conduits. On a regional scale, faults of a particular deformation event have to be viewed as forming a network of flow conduits directing recharge more or less rapidly towards the water table and the springs. Sections of impermeable fault cores only very locally have the potential to create barriers.
Journal Article